A Better Look at the History of Teaching English as a Second Language

1. A Better Look at the History of Teaching English as a Second Language ED.810.629/Supporting English Language Learners in Literacy and Content Knowledge Development (SELL) Susan Zimmerman-Orozco September 18, 2010 By PresenterMedia.com

2. Outcomes:  Read about and seen examples, if possible, of some of the principal approaches to language teaching as well as some of the kookiest; By the end of this PowerPoint you will have:  Reviewed a short history of the developing field of language learning theory and teaching English as a Second Language;  Read highlights of the major contributors to the research behind the major methodologies;  Completed a chart that summarizes the defining characteristics of language learning methodologies  Felt confident that the quiz on second language learning methodologies will be a “piece of cake.”

3. Great Moments in Language Learning History Major approaches to language learning • Behavioral • B.F. Skinner: Verbal Behavior (1957) • Children produce language in response to stimuli • Nativist • Chomsky: 1965 • All human brain are equipped with a “Language Acquisition Device (LAD)” • Functional • Wilkins- 1972 • Language from a functional standpoint • Krashen’s theories of second language acquisition • Krashen: 1982 • - the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis (Cognitive LL), • - the Monitor hypothesis, • - the Natural Order hypothesis, • - the Input hypothesis, • - the Affective Filter hypothesis

4. Behavioral • The behaviorists believe that FLL consists of learners imitating what they hear and develop habits in the FL by routine practice: drills. • Learners are thought to relate what they know of their L1 to what they recognize in the L2. • It is associated with the audio-lingual method. • Problems with this view of FLL include the fact that imitation does not help the learner in real-life situations. Learners are continually required to form sentences they have never previously seen.

5. Nativist Chomsky: We are born with a set of rules about language in our heads which he refers to as the Universal Grammar. The universal grammar is the basis upon which all human languages build. If a Martian linguist were to visit Earth, he would deduce from the evidence that there was only one language, with a number of local variants. Chomsky’s rationale:. Children are exposed to very little correctly formed language but they learn it. When people speak, they constantly interrupt themselves, change their minds, make slips of the tongue. Yet, children deduce rules from it, which they use to produce sentences that they have never heard before. They do not learn a repertoire of phrases and sayings, as the behaviorists believe, but a grammar that generates an infinity of new sentences.

6. Nativist, con’t Critical period hypothesis. Over the years from 2-7, when language is mastered, children constantly adjust their grammar until it matches that of the adult speaker population. Eric Lenneberg (1967) hypothesized that if a child does not learn a language before the onset of puberty, the child will never master language at all. Largely borne out by instances of wild or abused children who essentially grew up without language.

7. Functional-Notional In 1972, the British linguist D.A. Wilkins published a document that proposed a radical shift away from using the traditional concepts of grammar and vocabulary to describe language to an analysis of the communicative meanings that learners would need in order to express themselves and to understand effectively.

8. Functional-Notional Approach

9. Cognitive* Approach - Language Acquisition vs. Learning *Cognitive refers to how the brain processes language In the cognitive view FL learners are thought to creatively use their skills of cognition in order to figure out the L2 on their own. The Acquisition-Learningdistinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners. According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'.

10. Acquisition & Learning The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.

11. Language Acquisition Krashen's theory consists of five main hypotheses: • the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, • the Monitor hypothesis, • the Natural Order hypothesis, • the Input hypothesis, • and the Affective Filter hypothesis

12. Language Acquisition /Learning • L2 acquisition is a subconscious process of incidentally “picking up” a language, as children do when becoming proficient in their first languages. • Language learning, on the other hand, is studying, consciously and intentionally, the features of a language, as is common in traditional classrooms. • Krashen (1982) sees input as essential to language acquisition (Input Hypothesis). • Krashen applies Chomsky ‘s Universal Grammar (UG) to SLA by proposing a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that uses L2 input to define the learners emerging understanding of the L2, within the constraints of UG, and to increase the L2 proficiency of the learner.

13. Monitor Hypothesis The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning . The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. • Krashensays there is individual variation among language learners with regard to 'monitor' use: learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the 'monitor'. • The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: • (1) the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, • (2) he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and • (3) he/she knows the rule.

14. The Natural Order • The Natural Orderhypothesis suggests that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. • For any given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late, independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure. • Statistically significant similarities in research reinforce the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. • Krashen however points out that the natural order hypothesis does NOT mean not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.

15. Input Hypothesis AKA Comprehensible Input Look at Krashen’s explanation: Krashen's lecture • According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. • For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. • Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some • 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.

16. Affective Filter • The Affective Filterhypothesis refers to Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' influence second language acquisition, including: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. • Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. • Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place. • Has your own learning ever been affected by any of these variable?

17. Methods of teaching English as a Second Language • Grammar translation • Direct Method • Audio-lingual • “Designer “ methods • Communicative Language Teaching

18. Grammar Translation • Also known as the Classical Method • Used for the study of Latin and Greek • Focus on grammatical rules, memorization and translation. • No attention paid to oral language development.

19. Direct method • Developed by • Charles Berlitz • Early 20th Century • Grammar • taught inductively • No translation • Model and practice • Use of objects and visuals The basic premise of the Direct Method is that students will learn to communicate in the target language. (1) by learning how to think in that language and (2) by not involving L1 in the language learning process whatsoever.  Objectives include teaching the students how to use the language spontaneously and orally, linking meaning with the target language through the use of realia, pictures or pantomime. There is to be a direct connection between concepts and the language to be learned.

20. Direct Method techniques (1) Reading Aloud (Reading sections of passages, plays or dialogs out loud) (2)  Question and Answer Exercise (Asking questions in the target language and having students answer in full sentences) (3)  Student Self-Correction(Teacher facilitates opportunities for students to self correct using follow-up questions, tone, etc) (4) Conversation Practice (Teacher asks students and students ask students questions using the target language) (5)  Fill-in-the-blank Exercise (Items use target language only and inductive rather than explicit grammar rules) (6)  Dictation (Teacher reads passage aloud various amount of times at various tempos, students writing down what they hear) (7)  Paragraph Writing (Students write paragraphs in their own words using the target language and various models)

21. Audio-lingual method The Audio-lingual method is the product of 3historical circumstances. • American Linguistics like Leonard Bloomfield in the early 20th century worked to document all the indigenous languages spoken in the USA. Without enough trained linguists to assist, linguists had to rely on observation and a strong focus on oral language. • At the same time, behaviorist psychologists such as B.F. Skinner were forming the belief that all behavior (including language) was learned through repetition and positive or negative reinforcement. • The outbreak of World War II created the need to post large number of American servicemen all over the world. To provide these soldiers with at least basic verbal communication skills the new method relied on the prevailing scientific methods of the time, observation and repetition, easy to adapt to teaching large numbers. Because of the influence of the military, early versions of the audio-lingualism came to be known as the “army method.”[

22. Audio-Lingual, continued • Drills and pattern practice are typical of the Audio-lingual method. These include:Repetition: where the student repeats an utterance as soon as he hears itInflection: Where one word in a sentence appears in another form when repeatedReplacement : Where one word is replaced by anotherRestatement : The student re-phrases an utterance The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill can be incorporated into one practice session :Teacher: There's a cup on the table ... repeatStudents: There's a cup on the tableTeacher: SpoonStudents: There's a spoon on the tableTeacher: BookStudents: There's a book on the tableTeacher: On the chairStudents: There's a book on the chair

23. DESIGNER METHODOLOGIES Community Language Learning Suggestopedia The Silent Way Total Physical Response (TPR) Notional-Functional Syllabuses The Natural Approach (Krashen)

24. Community Language Learning (1) Takes its principles from the “Counseling Learning Approach” developed by Charles A. Curran. 2)  Created especially for adult learners who might fear to appear foolish, so the teacher becomes a language counselor who understands them and leadsthem to overcome their fears . 3)  Follows Krashen’s Monitor Theory & Affective Filter Hypothesis and the cognitive Theory where the human mind is active .

25. Community Language Learning, con’t Lesson Presentation Student raises his hand, teacher comes behind him.  Student says phrase/sentence in native language. Teacher helps him say it in target language. Teacher records target language only. Teacher sits and asks students how they feel about the experience. They listen to the conversation Teacher plays tape again & writes target L sentences on the board; waits for volunteers to give native language equivalents.  (Students don’t write anything down). Teacher writes French/ESL translation Teacher asks students to relax and just listen while he reads/plays the transcript 3 times . Good demonstration, bad video: Community Language Learning Post-Lesson Activities Pronunciation practice : Student raises hand, teacher comes behind him.Student says a word or sentences in any language. Teacher gives back only correct target language and stops only when student stops.Group work: Groups create new sentences based on transcript; each group reads his sentences Closure Teacher asks the students to talk about the experience .

26. Suggestopedia • Based on a modern understanding of how the human brain works and how we learnmost effectively. It was developed by the Bulgarian doctor and psychotherapist GeorgiLozanov. • PresentationA preparatory stage in which students are helped to relax and move into a positive frame of mind, with the feeling that the learning is going to be easy and fun. • First Concert "Active Concert"This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt. For example, in a foreign language course there might be the dramatic reading of a piece of text, accompanied by classical music. • Second Concert "Passive Review"The students are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroque music, with the text being read very quietly in the background. The music is specially selected to bring the students into the optimum mental state for the effortless acquisition of the material. • PracticeThe use of a range of games, puzzles, etc. to review and consolidate the learning.

27. The Silent Way: Caleb Gattegno, 1970’s • Cattegno's basic theories included "teaching should be subordinated to learning“ & "the teacher works with the student; the student works on the language." • The teacher typically stayed "silent" most of the time, as a facilitator and stimulator. • Language learning is a problem solving activity to be engaged in by the students both independently and as a group. The teacher needs to stay out of the way in the process as much as possible. The Silent Way, Pt. 1 & 2 The Silent Way is also well-known for its common use of small colored rods of varying length (cuisinere rods) and color-coded word charts depicting pronunciation values, vocabulary and grammar.  It is a unique method and the first of its kind to really concentrate on cognitive principles in language learning.

28. Total Physical Response: James Asher, 1969 • Components: • Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect the same naturalistic processes. • Listening should develop before speaking • Children respond physically to spoken language, and adult learners learn better if they do that too • Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally and effortlessly out of it. • Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns • Delaying speech reduces stress. Total Physical Response

29. The Natural Approach   The Natural Approach was developed by Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen, starting in 1977. Based on a Communicative view of language . Emphasis on language as a set of messages that can be understood. The Natural Approach is based on the following tenets: • Language acquisition is different from language learning, and language acquisition is the only way competence in a second language occurs. • Conscious learning operates only as a monitor or editor that checks or repairs the output of what has been acquired. (The monitor hypothesis) • Grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order and it does little good to try to learn them in another order. (The natural order hypothesis). • People acquire language best from messages that are just slightly beyond their current competence. (The input hypothesis) • The learner's emotional state can act as a filter that impedes or blocks input necessary to acquisition. (The affective filter hypothesis) The Natural Approach is the foundation of Lead to Communicative Language Teaching…

30. Communicative Language Teaching A broad approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching method David Nunan’s (1991) five features of CLT: Emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language. Using authentic texts in the learning situation. Opportunities for learners to focus but also on the managing their own learning. Emphasizing the learner’s own personal experiences as part of class content. Linking classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.

31. Communicative Language Teaching What a classroom looks like: • Teachers are facilitators: talking less and listening • The teacher sets up the exercise between two or more students, steps back and observe, and monitor. • The students do most of the speaking, and frequently the scene of a classroom during a communicative exercise is active, with students leaving their seats to complete a task. • Students have increased responsibility to participate and develop they gain confidence in using the target language. This is a GREAT example of CLT! CLT Classroom in action

32. Study Guide…

33. Just for fun! Stephen Krashen • Stephen Krashen is a curmudgeonly yet sane voice in the wilderness of NCLB. If you have time, watch and listen to his irreverent take on NCLB, reading, and language acquisition: • Part 1: http://youtu.be/IqukbEigUtk Part 2: http://youtu.be/BO7NQHPZ6z0 Part 3: http://youtu.be/xY53f4PPniE • Part 4: http://youtu.be/erF3fZHJCDk