Research Methods

Research Methods Jacob Godfrey Agea (PhD) Ethnobotany & Applied Food Security Dept. Extension & Innovation Studies, College of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. Mobile: +256 (0) 392945330; Email: agea@forest.mak.ac.ug / jgagea@gmail.com Homepage: http://ageajg.weebly.com/

Hypotheses • A hypothesis - a possible solution or answer derived from a thought process using evidence provided in the established body of knowledge in the area of research. • A research project often tests a hypothesis to refute or support it.

Four criteria to be satisfied by a good hypothesis: • States an expected relationship among variables. • Provides justification for the hypothesis from literature. • Is testable under the constraints of the study • Is clear and brief. Most hypotheses state the anticipated direction of the relationship of the variables – revisit your statistics

Forms of hypotheses • Null hypotheses – Proposes that there is no relationship among the identified variables - if the study is an experiment, then a statistical test of significance will measure support for the null hypothesis. A null hypothesis is non directional since there is no relationship (Ho) • Alternative hypotheses - remaining possible outcomes other than the null hypothesis. Alternative hypotheses usually have a direction stated in the relationship of variables (H,).

Research questions Vs hypotheses • Common in social survey research. • Simply a re-sating of the objectives of various aspects of the research in form of questions. • Some examples.........

Literature Review • Done at an early stage of research after identifying the topic. • Learning what others have done in related area & the knowledge gaps needing further investigation. • Standing on the shoulders of others (giants).

Sources of Literature • Text books; Periodicals • Technical reports; Academic theses • Websites • Published papers (peer reviewed journals) - preferably better (current) than other literature sources normally referred to as “grey” literature. Pay attention on how to gather information from literature Take trouble to learn how to quote lit both in text and at the reference section – examples --

Survey research • A method of gathering data (can be qualitative or quantitative) to describe, compare, or explain knowledge, attitudes (general dispositions), systems of beliefs (core beliefs, general policy beliefs, specific beliefs), preferences (or, more disparagingly, “opinions”), trust, & behaviours 8

Advantages of Undertaking Surveys • Surveys have a number of advantages in terms of collecting, analyzing & assessing information from the sampled population: • Quickness • Inexpensiveness • Flexibility • Efficiency • Accuracy • Helpful in the decision-making process • The advantages are only evident when surveys are properly conducted! 9

Weakness of survey research • Poor design can easily lead to bias • Weak on validity • Subject to artificiality. 10

Types of Surveys • Cross-Sectional Surveys • Are used to gather information on a population at a single point in time. An example of a cross sectional survey would be a questionnaire that collects data on how parents feel about their adolescent boys. • A different cross-sectional survey questionnaire might try to determine the relationship between two factors, like religiousness of parents and views on homosexuality. 11

2. Longitudinal Surveys Gathers data over a period of time. The researcher may then analyze changes in the population and attempt to describe &/or explain them. There are three main types of longitudinal surveys: • trend studies, • cohort studies, & • panel studies. 12

Trend Studies • Trend studies focus on a particular population, which is sampled & scrutinized repeatedly. • While samples are of the same population, they are typically not composed of the same people. • Trend studies, since they may be conducted over a long period of time, do not have to be conducted by just one researcher or research project. • A researcher may combine data from several studies of the same population in order to show a trend. 13

b) Cohort Studies • Cohort studies also focus on a particular population, sampled and studied more than once. But cohort studies have a different focus. • For example, a sample of 2010 BCF graduates of MAK could be questioned regarding their attitudes toward the relevance of forestry education in their life. 14

Five years later, the researcher could question another sample of 2010 BCF graduates of MAK, and study any changes in their attitude. • A cohort study would sample the same class, every time. If the researcher studied the BCF. class of 2010 five years later, it would be a trend study, not a cohort study. 15

c) Panel Studies • Panel studies allow the researcher to find out why changes in the population are occurring, since they use the same sample of people every time. • That sample is called a panel. A researcher could, for example, select a sample of 2010 BCF graduate students, and ask them questions on their working experience. 16

Every year thereafter, the researcher would contact the same people, and ask them similar questions, and ask them the reasons for any changes in their habits. • Panel studies, while they can yield extremely specific and useful explanations, can be difficult to conduct. • They tend to be expensive, they take a lot of time, and they suffer from high attrition rates. Attrition is what occurs when people drop out of the study. 17

Potential Errors in Undertaking Surveys If we are to ensure reliability, validity & representativeness of the survey findings, then we need to guard against all forms of survey errors. 18

Random Sampling Error • A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of change variation in the elements selected for the sample (It cannot be eliminated but very large samples can minimize it >400) 20

Systematic Error (bias)Systematic error results from some imperfect aspect of the research design or from a mistake in the execution of the research Administrative error Systematic error (bias) Respondent error 21

Respondent Error • A classification of sample bias resulting from some respondent action or inaction • Non-response bias • Response bias 22

Non-response Error • Non-respondents - people who refuse to cooperate • Not-at-homes • Self-selection bias • Over-represents extreme positions • Under-represents indifference 23

Response Bias • A bias that occurs when respondents tend to answer questions with a certain slant that consciously or unconsciously misrepresents the truth. This includes: • Acquiescence bias • Extremity bias • Interviewer bias • Auspices bias • Social desirability bias 24

Acquiescence Bias • A category of response bias that results because some individuals tend to agree with all questions or to concur with a particular position. 25

Extremity Bias • A category of response bias that results because response styles vary from person to person; some individuals tend to use extremes when responding to questions. Interviewer Bias • A response bias that occurs because the presence of the interviewer influences answers. 26

Auspices Bias • Bias in the responses of subjects caused by the respondents being influenced by the organization conducting the study. 27

Social Desirability Bias • Bias in responses caused by respondents’ desire, either conscious or unconscious, to gain prestige or appear in a different social role. 28

Survey Error Administrative error Systematic error (bias) Respondent error 29

Administrative Error • Improper administration of the research task • Blunders • Confusion • Neglect • Omission 30

Types of administrative error: • Interviewer cheating-filling in fake answers or falsifying interviewers • Data processing error- incorrect data entry, computer programming, or other procedural errors during the analysis stage. • Sample selection error -improper sample design or sampling procedure execution. • Interviewer error - field mistakes 31

Survey Research Tools • Personal interviews • Door-to-door • Focus group interviews • Telephone interviews • Self-administered questionnaires 32

Guidelines for Survey Interviewing Dress in a similar manner to the people who will be interviewed. Study and become familiar with the questionnaire. Follow question wording exactly. Record responses exactly. Probe for responses when necessary. 33

Training for Interviewers Discussion of general guidelines and procedures. Specify how to handle difficult or confusing situations. Conduct demonstration interviews. Conduct “real” interviews. 34

Personal Interviews A personal interview is a form of direct communication in which an interviewer asks respondents in a face-to-face conversational situation. It can be door-to-door or in form of group interviews/discussions. 35

Advantages of Personal Interviews • Opportunity for Feedback – Interviewer can provide direct feedback to the respondent, give clarifications & help alleviate any misconceptions or apprehensions over confidentiality that the respondent may have in answering the interviewer’s questions • Probing Complex Answers – Interviewers can probe if the respondent’s answer is too brief or unclear. This gives interviewers some flexibility in dealing with unstructured questions and is especially suited for handling complex questions 36

Length of Interview – If the questionnaire is often very lengthy, the personal interview is the best technique for getting respondents to cooperate, without overtaxing their patience. Complete Questionnaires – Personal ensures ensure that the respondent will answer all questions asked, unlike in telephone interview where the respondent may hang up or in mail questionnaire where some questions may go unanswered. 37

Props & Visual Aids – Interviewers have the opportunity of showing respondents items such as sample products, graphs ands sketches, which can aid in their answers High Participation – Interviewing respondents personally can increase the likelihood of their participation, as many people prefer to communicate directly verbally & sharing information and insights with interviewers 38

Disadvantages of Personal Interviews Cost – Personal interviews are usually more expensive than mail, telephone or internet surveys. Factors influencing the cost of the interview include the respondents’ geographic proximity, the length & complexity of the questionnaire, & the number of non-respondents 39

Lack of Anonymity – Respondents are not anonymous in a personal (face-to-face) interview & may be reluctant to disclose certain information to the interviewer. Hence, considerable must be expended by the interviewer when dealing with sensitive questions to avoid bias effects on the respondent’s part. Necessity for Callbacks – When a person selected for interview cannot be reached the first time, a callback has to be scheduled which result in extra cost and time spent 40

Dishonesty – Interviewers cheat to make their life easier & save time and effort. Personal Style – The interviewers individual questioning style, techniques, approach & demeanor may influence the respondents’ answers. Global Considerations – Cultural aspects may influence peoples’ willingness to participate in an interview (e.g. repressive Middle Eastern cultures discourage females from being questioned face-to-face by male interviewers). 41

Telephone Surveys 42

In telephone interviews, respondents are contacted by telephone in order to collect data for surveys • Telephone interviewing has been used for decades &, in some ways, has advantages over other methods of undertaking surveys • With improvements in the IT-field, computers can be used to assist in telephone interviewing, & answers given by respondents can be entered by interviewers directly into the computer, saving effort, time & cost 43

Speed – This is a major advantage of telephone interviewing, enabling data to be collected on very short notice. • Cost – Telephone interviews are comparatively cheaper to conduct than personal interviews. No travel time and travel cost is involved. • No Face-to-Face Contact – Bse telephone interviews lack the direct element of interaction, respondents may be more willing to provide certain information that they would be reluctant to disclose in a personal (face-to-face) interview. 44

Cooperation – People may be reluctant to allow interviewers into their homes, but they may be willing to cooperate by letting themselves be interviewed over the telephone. Callbacks – Telephone callbacks are easier to perform than personal interview callbacks. 45

Disadvantages of Telephone Interviews No Face-to-Face Contact – Interviewer may not be able to record the respondent’s data fast enough and the respondent, who cannot see this, may continue to add data. Also, due to the visual communication gap, there is a greater tendency for interviewers to record no-answers and incomplete answers than in a personal interview. 46

Cooperation – Research shows that response rates in telephone interviews are declining with the passage of time & the availability of respondents has also declined for various reasons. Also, reaching executives in workplaces can be very difficult due to tight schedules and the work load. Lack of Visual Mediums – Visual aids cannot be used by interviewers in telephone interviews, hence, surveys which need visual aids to help respondents cannot be undertaken with this survey method. 47

Limited Duration – Length of interview time in a telephone interview is limited. Too long interview times may result in exasperated respondents hanging up the telephone or refusing to answer questions. Representative Samples – Using the telephone directory as the basis for sampling can be problematic in the sense that many persons are unlisted or do not have telephones, but whose opinions are nevertheless important. Global Considerations – In many countries, people are reluctant to divulge information over the telephone. 48

Self-Administered Questionnaires 49

Self-administered questionnaires are those questionnaires that are filled in by the respondent independently, i.e. without the direct interaction with an interviewer • There are many ways for distributing self-administered questionnaires, for example, by mailing or faxing questionnaires to pple, by posting them on websites, by distributing them at certain locations & places, by including them as inserts in magazines & so forth • Researchers who have to interpret self-administered questionnaires have to be skillful at trying to understand what is being conveyed to them in written or electronic - rather than verbal - form 50

Research Methods