19.1 Introduction

Chapter 19Electronic Electrochemical Chemical and Thermal Machining Processes (Review)EIN 3390 Manufacturing ProcessesFall, 2010

Non-traditional machining (NTM) processes have several advantages • Complex geometries are possible • Extreme surface finish • Tight tolerances • Delicate components • Little or no burring or residual stresses • Brittle materials with high hardness can be machined • Microelectronic or integrated circuits (IC) are possible to mass produce 19.1 Introduction

Four basic groups of material removal using NTM processes • Chemical: • Chemical reaction between a liquid reagent and workpiece results in etching • Electrochemical • An electrolytic reaction at workpiece surface for removal of material • Thermal • High temperature in very localized regions evaporate materials, for example, EDM • Mechanical • High-velocity abrasives or liquids remove materials NTM Processes

Machining processes that involve chip formation have a number of limitations • Large amounts of energy • Unwanted distortion • Residual stresses • Burrs • Delicate or complex geometries may be difficult or impossible Limitations of Conventional Machining Processes

Typical machining parameters • Feed rate (5 – 200 in./min.) • Surface finish (60 – 150 min) AA – Arithmetic Average • Dimensional accuracy (0.001 – 0.002 in.) • Workpiece/feature size (25 x 24 in.); 1 in. deep • NTM processes typically have lower feed rates and require more power consumption • The feed rate in NTM is independent of the material being processed Conventional End Milling vs. NTM

Typically involves metals, but ceramics and glasses may be etched • Material is removed from a workpiece by selectively exposing it to a chemical reagent or etchant • Gel milling- gel is applied to the workpiece in gel form. • Maskant- selected areas are covered and the remaining surfaces are exposed to the etchant. This is the most common method of CHM. 19.2 Chemical Machining Processes

Table 19-1 Summary of NTM Processes

Masking • Several different methods • Cut-and-peel • Scribe-and-peel • Screen printing • Etch rates are slow in comparison to other NTM processes Figure 19-1 Steps required to produce a stepped contour by chemical machining.

Defects in Etching Figure 19-2 Typical chemical milling defects: (a) overhang: deep cuts with improper agitation; (b) islands: isolated high spots from dirt, residual maskant, or work material inhomogeneity; (c) dishing: thinning in center due to improper agitation or stacking of parts in tank. • If baths are not agitated properly, defects result

Advantages Process is relatively simple Does not require highly skilled labor Induces no stress or cold working in the metal Can be applied to almost any metal Large areas Virtually unlimited shape Thin sections Disadvantages Requires the handling of dangerous chemicals Disposal of potentially harmful byproducts Metal removal rate is slow Advantages and Disadvantages of Chemical Machining

Photochemical Machining Figure 19-4 Basic steps in photochemical machining (PCM).

If artwork is used, dimensional variations can occur through size changes in the artwork of phototool film due to temperature and humidity changes • Etch factor (E)- describes the undercutting of the maskant • Areas that are exposed longer will have more metal removed from them • E=U/d, where d- depth, U- undercutting • Anisotropy (A)- directionality of the cut, A=d/U, and Wf = Wm + (E d), or Wm = Wf - (E d) • where Wf is final desired width of cut Design Factors in Chemical Machining

d/3

Chemical-Mechanical Polishing (CMP) • Uses the synergy of chemistry and mechanical grinding to obtain flatness on the order of 50 nm. • CMP is used to fabricate integrated circuits (ICs) Figure 19-6 Schematic of chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP).

Most common method for creating maskants • Involves the use of UV (Ultra-Violet) light-sensitive emulsions, called photoresists • Photoresists are applied to the surface of the workpiece and selectively exposed to an intense ray of UV light • ICs use semiconductor materials that can be made to be either electrically conducting or insulating • Doping modifies these electrical properties by introducing impurity atoms into semiconductors. • Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material Photochemical Machining for Electronics

Ability to selectively modify the electrical properties of semiconductors is the backbone of microelectronic manufacturing On Fig 19-8, the sequence of processes or steps required to manufacture a simple metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) is show up. Photolithography shown on Fig 19 - 9 is used to produce a polymeric mask over the oxide layer, which allows only selected areas of the oxide layer to be etched. How ICs are Made

Small circuits are inexpensive, but the cost of packaging, testing, and assembling the completed circuits into an electronic system must be taken into account • Ways to improve the economics • Increase wafer size • Increases the usable area • Increase the number of chips per wafer by decreasing chip dimensions • Improve die yield IC Manufacturing and Economics

Serves to distribute electronic signals and power • Provides mechanical interfacing to test equipment and printed circuit boards (PCBs) • Protect the delicate circuitry from mechanical stresses and electrostatic discharge during handling and in corrosive environments • Dissipate heat generated in the circuits IC Packaging

Two main methods in which components are connected to the circuit on the PCB • DIP is an example of through-hole (TH) technology, or pin-in-hole (PIH) • IC packages and discrete components are inserted into metal-plated holes in the PCB and soldered from the underside • Surface mount (SM) technology places electronic components onto solder paste pads that have been dispensed onto the surface of the PCB Steps in IC Packaging

SM technology • Packages are more cost-effective than TH • Designed for automated production • TH components have only one lead geometry and SM have many different designes • Lead geometries • Butt lead or J-lead • Gull wing leads • Solder balls IC Packaging

PCB Fabrication Process Figure 19-13 Typical base materials used may be epoxy-impregnated fiberglass, polyimide, or ceramic. Epoxy-impregnated fiberglass is the cheapest substitute for interconnecting leaded packages. Fiberglass is used to increase the mechanical stiffness of the device for handling, while epoxy resin imparts better ductility. The fiberglass is impregnated on a continuous line where resin infiltrates the fiberglass mat in a dip basin, and the soaked fabric passes through a set of rollers to control thickness and an oven where the resin is partially cured. The resulting glass resin sheet is called prepreg. Multiple prepregs are then pressed together between electroformed copper foil under precise heat and pressure conditions to form a copper-clad laminate or PCB.

19.3 Electrochemical Machining Process • Electrochemical machining (ECM) removes material by anodic dissolution with a rapidly flowing electrolyte • The tool is the cathode and the workpiece is the electrolyte Figure 19-17 Schematic diagram of electrochemical machining process (ECM).

Table 19-3 Material Removal Rates for ECM Alloys Assuming 100% Current Efficiency

Pulsed-current ECM (PECM) • Pulsed on and off for durations of approximately 1ms • Pulsed currents are also used in electrochemical machining (EMM) • Electrochemical polishing is a modification of the ECM process • Much slower penetration rate Electrochemical Processing

Table 19-4 Metal Removal Rates for ECG for Various Metals (Electrochemical Grinding – ECG)

Advantages ECM is well suited for the machining of complex two-dimensional shapes Delicate parts may be made Difficult-to machine geometries Poorly machinable materials may be processed Little or no tool wear Disadvantages Initial tooling can be timely and costly Environmentally harmful by-products Advantages and Disadvantages of Electrochemical Machining

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) removes metal by discharging electric current from a pulsating DC power supply across a thin interelectrode gap • The gap is filled by a dielectric fluid, which becomes locally ionized • Two different types of EDM exist based on the shape of the tool electrode • Ram EDM/ sinker EDM • Wire EDM 19.4 Electrical Discharge Machining

Figure 19-21 EDM or spark erosion machining of metal, using high-frequency spark discharges in a dielectric, between the shaped tool (cathode) and the work (anode). The table can make X-Y movements.

EDM Processes • Slow compared to conventional machining • Produce a matte surface • Complex geometries are possible • Often used in tool and die making Figure 19-22 Schematic diagram of equipment for wire EDM using a moving wire electrode.

MRR = (C I)/(Tm1.23), Where MRR – material removal rate in in.3/min.; C – constant of proportionality equal to 5.08 in US customary units; I – discharge current in amps; Tm – melting temperature of workpiece material, 0F. Example: A certain alloy whose melting point = 2,000 0F is to be machined in EDM. If a discharge current = 25A, what is the expected metal removal rate? MRR = (C I)/(Tm1.23) = (5.08 x 25)/(2,0001.23) = 0.011 in.3/min. Effect of Current on-time and Discharge Current on Crater Size

Figure 19-25 The principles of metal removal for EDM.

From Fig 19 – 25: we have the conclusions: • Generally higher duty cycles with higher currents and lower frequencies are used to maximize MRR. • Higher frequencies and lower discharge currents are used to improve surface finish while reducing MRR. • Higher frequencies generally cause increased tool wear. Effect of Current on-time and Discharge Current on Crater Size

Graphite is the most widely used tool electrode • The choice of electrode material depends on its machinability and coast as well as the desired MRR, surface finish, and tool wear • The dielectric fluid has four main functions • Electrical insulation • Spark conductor • Flushing medium • Coolant Considerations for EDM

Table 19-5 Melting Temperatures for Selected EDM Workpiece Materials

Advantages Applicable to all materials that are fairly good electrical conductors Hardness, toughness, or brittleness of the material imposes no limitations Fragile and delicate parts Disadvantages Produces a hard recast surface Surface may contain fine cracks caused by thermal stress Fumes can be toxic Advantages and Disadvantages of EDM

Review Questions: 7, 17, 18 (page 521, 5 points for each question ) HW for Chapter 19 (due date 11/30/2010)

19.1 Introduction