English, French, German, and Russian Education Chapters 17, 18, 19, and 20 Presented by Alma Rangel and Elsa Barron EDCI

1. English, French, German, and Russian Education Chapters 17, 18, 19, and 20 Presented by Alma Rangel and Elsa Barron EDCI 658 October 30, 2006

2. English Education

3. Early Efforts to Combat Illiteracy • The majority of England’s lower socioeconomic classes were illiterate. • Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838) and Andrew Bell (1753-1832) independently developed an educational innovation called the "monitorial system”. • The method was based by using the older boys enrolled in his school as monitors; he gave them charge of instructing the younger students in the basic skills and routine tasks of school management. Joseph Lancaster • The monitorial schools established by both Bell and Lancaster attempted to teach reading, writing, and simple arithmetic. • The method is now commonly known as Learning by teaching. Andrew Bell

4. Factory Reform and Education • The various developments of English education were related to Industrialism. The factory system, had been established in England at the end of the eighteenth century. • There was widespread use of child labor in English factories, mills, and mines. • By 1830s, several leaders focused their attention against child labour. One of them was Michael Sadler, who introduced a bill in Parliament to regulate working conditions of child laborers in textile mills. • The strongest opposition to factory reform legislation often came from the industrial manufacturers, many of whom were prominent members of the Liberal party. John Bright is one of them, who believed that any governmental interference with working conditions violated individual liberty and freedom of contract.

5. In 1833, the first law against child labour, the Factory Act of 1833, was passed in England. It was an attempt to establish a regular working day in the textile industry. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of this law. • The act had the following provisions: 1. Children under nine were prohibited form working in the textile mills. 2. Children (ages 9-13) must not work more than 9 hours (48 hours per week). 3. Young people (ages 13-18) must not work more than 10 hours. Thomas Savage in Wandsworth Prison • In the 1840s, Legislative acts were passed to remedy working conditions. Between those are: Ashley’s Act of 1842, Graham’s Factory Act of 1844, and Fielden’s Act of 1847. • Fielden’s Act established a normal working day of ten and a half hours for women and for young people in factories.

6. Laissez-Faire and Educational Reform • English elementary education throughout most of the nineteenth century was a product of the voluntary efforts of private philanthropic and religious organization. • The first significant government efforts in education came in 1833when Parliament provided limited national grants to schools. • In 1862, the Revised Code of Regulations inaugurated the schools grant system, popularly referred to as “payments by results”. Thissystem of examinations stimulated the emergence of a national elementary school system • According with this Code: 1. Each child was expected to attain a specified level of achievement in the basic subjects of reading, writing, and arithmetic by the end of each year. 2. Each child was to be examined annually to determine his or her competency in the required subjects. 3. The amount of the grant awarded to each school was to be calculated according to the number of children who passed the examination in each of the subjects an by the total number of attendance days recorded per child. • The Educational Department, established earlier in 1856, gradually shaped the curriculum as the elementary schools came to emphasize success on the examinations as a major educational objective. • The elementary schools became a separate track with the aim of providing mass literacy rather that preparing students for entry into secondary schools.

7. Gladstone and Educational Reform • William Ewart Gladstone (1809-1898) was leader of the British Liberal Party and Primer Minister. • His first term office, from 1868 to 1874, was characterized by legislative reforms, among them the Foster Act, or Education Act of 1870. • The Education Act of 1870 set up a Primary School system and provide schooling for all children between the ages of 5 and 13. The Act laid the foundations of English elementary education. William Ewart Gladstone. • This legislation divided the country into local school districts, under the jurisdiction of local, secular school boards, and it authorized taxation to establish an maintain elementary school. • As a result of his legislation, the “board” school, jointly supported by local taxes and national grants, appeared as a rival to the “voluntary” schools (church schools) which received national grants but did not received local tax support. • Although the Act of 1870 did not establish completely free and compulsory elementary education, it gave impetus to the movement for popular education.

8. Secondary Education In the nineteenth century, English secondary education generally served the needs of the upper and middle classes who sent their children to private schools. The famous public schools, between these: Winchester, Rugby, St. Paul’s etc.., had their origins in the classical humanist grammar schools, and, proud of their classical traditions, they were resistant to change. However, some criticism of these institutions did make some attempt to modernize and expand the curriculum but generally the educational beliefs represented a tension between to modernize and to maintain the traditional. Public schools education reflected the social, political, and economic forces that determined upper-class behavior. Its values were classical and traditional and inclined toward religion, patriotism, and manliness. Although only slight progress was made in changing the patterns of secondary education, some limited responses were made to satisfy the demands for increased secondary educational opportunities. The Education Act of 1902 laid the foundation for the establishment of a secondary school system. The Code of Regulations of 1904 attempted to define the relationships and objectives of the different types of English schools. The elementary schools was to provide for the education of the mass of children and was to identify children of exceptional ability so that they might be properly prepared for secondary education.

9. Twenty-Century Developments • In the twenty century, additional to Liberal and Conservative Party, was formed the Labour Party (1906). • In the forefront of the new movement was the Fabian Society, founded by a group of intellectuals in 1883 to promote a socialized democracy. The society laid many of the foundations of the Labour Party during this period. • After World War I, the Labour party displaced the disintegrating Liberal party (major political force particularly in the nineteenth century) as one of the two major parties. • While the old Conservative party remained a major force, the Liberals lost support and became a small faction in the Parliament. Clement Attlee • The greatest success of the Labour party came in 1945 when Clement Attlee. He was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from 1945 to 1951. The Labour Party under Attlee won a landslide election victory over the conservative Winston Churchill, immediately after Churchill had led Britain through World War II. • The Attlee government introduces the welfare state, based on socialist patterns, to extend economic security to all citizens.

10. Education in the Twenty Century • The Act of 1918, which resulted form the efforts of H. A. Fisher, provided for secondary education compulsory up to age 14 and gave responsibility for secondary schools to the state. Under the Act, many higher elementary schools and endowed grammar schools sought to become state funded central schools or secondary schools. However, most children attended primary (elementary) school up until age 14, rather than going to a separate school for secondary education. • The concept of “streaming” has characterized English education since the Hadow Report of 1926. • Brian Simon, an English educational historian, defined streaming as the grouping of children of a given age into parallel classes on the basis of scholastic achievement and intelligence test. The objective of it was to form homogeneous groups of children of the same age, intelligence level, and competence in basic subject so that instruction could be gradated according to the capacity of the class. • The Butler Education Act of 1944, introduced major innovations into English education. The Act divided education into three major stages: primary, form ages two to eleven; secondary, form twelve through fifteen; and advance schooling. • The Butter Act also provided for three types of secondary schools: grammar school, with a college preparatory curriculum; technical and vocational; and modern, which provided non-preparatory and non-technical general education consisting of cultural and work experiences. • School attendance was made compulsory until age fifteen, and provision was made for its later extension to sixteen.

11. The Return of Neoconservatism • In establishing the British social welfare state, the Labour Party emphasized the government management of the economy through centralized social and economic planning and the nationalization of key industries such as coal and steel production. • Through such economic centralism, Labour sought to create greater equity in British society between the socioeconomic classes. • During the years when Labour formed the government, the welfare state’s progressive taxation and welfare state benefits had weakened socioeconomic class stratification and identification. Margaret Thatcher • Margaret Thatcher, who led the Conservatives to victory in 1979, alleged that mounting social welfare costs had sapped the vigor of the British economy and had stifled private initiatives. • In contrast to the Labour Party, Thatcher urged reduce government intervention, privation of public enterprises, decreased social welfare programs, and lower taxes. She encouraged greater privatization in both the economy and in education.

12. The Thatcher government achieved some economic successes such as controlling the rate of inflation, stimulating economic growth, and reducing the national budged deficit. • The educational initiatives of the Conservative government sought to establish a national curriculum, encourage initiatives, and forge closer links between business and schools. • Part of a general trend in the Western world during the 1980s, the Conservative Thatcher and Major governments saw educations results in terms of economic productivity. • The Conservative government has also encouraged greater options or choice in education. They argue that decentralization will encourage greater citizen participation and involvement in educational matters. • While Conservative governments encouraged decentralization in school governance, they established a more centralized national curriculum • In 1989, the national curriculum was introduced. • The important demographic and ethnic changes occurred in British society in the 1970s and 1980s have impacted education. The considerable immigration form Jamaica, Barbados, Pakistan, India, Nigeria, Kenya, and other former colonial nations, have developed multicultural education that seeks to identify and respect cultural differences and styles of learning.

13. French Education

14. The July Monarchy • The July Monarchy lasted From 1830 to 1848 • It was controlled by upper-middle-class liberal capitalists. • They wanted restricted moderate reforms. • They believed that the primary function of government was to maintain public order. • Francois Guizot (1787-1874) personified the right-wing liberalism of Louis Philippe’s bourgeois monarchy • Guizot believed that only the upper middle class had the talent and intelligence to rule. Francois Guizot (1787-1874) • Guizot wrote a number of significant historical works. Between those are General History of Civilization in Europe (1828), where revealed his worldview. • He opposed both absolutism and popular government. • Guizot also had a remarked preference for French and European civilization

15. The Law of 1833 • The law of 1833 established the framework for French primary education. • Each commune in France was to establish a public primary school, pay teachers, and provide for a school building. • Free for those who needed. • The curriculum of primary schools should consist of reading, writing, spelling, grammar, composition and arithmetic. • This law showed distrust of religious control of schooling. • Public primary schools were established, but Private schools were permitted to function. • All private teachers were to be certified by the mayor of the commune. • Higher primary schools offering vocational education in commercial, agricultural, and industrial subjects. • Separate school systems were to be maintained for lower and upper socioeconomic classes.

16. Second French Empire: Louis Napoleon • In 1848, the regime of Louis Philippe was overthrown. • Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president of France by popular vote. • He dissolved the Assembly (1851). In 1852, he was proclaimed Napoleon III, Emperor of the French. • Napoleon III controlled education. In the French universities there were substantial opposition to his rule. • In 1850, the Falloux Law was promulgated, which gave the Roman Catholic Church control over French education. • Catholic schools were to be given state support. • Religious teachers of the recognized religions –Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish-were eligible without examination for appointments in the public schools. • The clergy was given power to supervise instruction in primary schools. Napoleon Bonaparte

17. The Third Republic • After the French armies suffered a crushing defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Napoleon III abdicated and fled to England in disgrace. • France returned to a genuinely republican government in what was termed the Third Republic. • The leading educational direction in the Third Republic came from Jules Ferry (1832-1893), who sought to modernize French education through a series of laws passed in the 1880s. • In 1881, tuition fees were abolished in primary schools. • In 1882, compulsory attendance was required between the ages of six and thirteen. Jules Ferry (1832-1893) • In 1886, education was further centralized. • In order to eliminate religious instruction in public education, members of religious communities were not allowed to teach in the public schools. • Only the public schools were eligible to receive financial support from the state. • In 1914 all private schools were closed. • The law was not enforced: French private and religious schools continued to operate due to the World War I.

18. Between the Wars • Between World War I and World War II France was plagued by internal divisions called “Three Frances” - The most conservative group was composed of aristocrats, landowners, and conservative Catholics; - The middle classes, small landowning peasantry, retailers, businessmen, teachers, and civil servants formed the second group; and - The third group consisted of industrial workers. • This threefold division was also reflected in French politics, where a host of parties ranging from the extreme right to the Communists on the far left competed against one another. • The depression made its greatest impact on France after 1934. • In opposition to the right-wing threat, a popular front was formed in 1935 consisting of a coalition of Socialists, Radical Socialists, and Communists. The popular front won in 1936 it was formed by Leon Blum. • Education enactments between the wars tended to consolidate rather than innovate. • In 1933 the principle of free tuition was established for both secondary and technical education. • In 1936 schooling was made compulsory through age fourteen. As in other western nations during the depression of the 1930s, France had to retrench its education expenditure.

19. Vichy France • When the third republic collapsed before the invading German armies in June 1940, this reactionary minority emerged under the leadership of Marshal Henri Petain. • Petain’s government, established at Vichy regime, sought to create a semi-fascist corporate state in the part of France unoccupied by German armies. • There was underground resistant to both the German occupation and to Petain’s Vichy collaborators. • Petain and Laval established an authoritarian regime modeled on fascism, that enacted repressive legislation and excluded Freemasons and Jews form legal protection. The prevalence of spying for and against the Nazis in southern France after the German invasion. • Petain’s government tried to reestablish the old order and, with it, traditional education along clerical conservative, and classical lines. In 1941, the paternalistic and authoritarian regime of Petain hoped to eradicate permissive, liberal, democratic and individualistic attitudes from the schools and from French society. • Petain based his education on the concept of the corporate state. • He felt that industrialism had undermined the French craftsmanship. Therefore, basic elementary education was to emphasize the manual vocation. • Political undesirables, Jews, and Freemasons were barred from teaching positions. • After liberation of France, The Vichy regime disintegrated. • Petain was tried for treason by the Fourth Republic and imprisoned until his death.

20. France under German Occupation 1940-44

21. French Education After Liberation • In 1944, Paul Langevin, planed the Postwar reform of French education. • Langevin was succeeded by the psychologist Henri Wallon. Both were communists, a fact that stimulated opposition to their recommendations • Their suggested reforms were: • recognition of individual aptitudes and differences among children; • the use of guidance so that every child could receive the education appropriate to his or her talents; • a respect for the dignity of labor. • In terms of sequence and structure, the Langevin -Wallon plan proposed that schooling be available for students from ages seven though eighteen. • The first phase, from ages seven to eleven, would emphasize the acquisition of basic skills and powers of observation and appreciation. • The second phase, from eleven through fifteen would emphasize guidance so that the student could become aware of and consider the various career and vocational alternatives. • The third phase, from fifteen through eighteen, the student would determine his or her dominant interest and pursue it. • The Langevin -Wallon proposals were not accepted by the National Assembly. • The Langevin -Wallon recommendations were significant, however, in that they indicated the direction that French education would take in the postwar world.

22. French Education After Liberation • De Gaulle, in the Fifth Republic, succeeded in enacting legislation that strengthened the power of the president and the executive branch. • During the 1960s, students expressed their discontent with French secondary and higher education. • University students protests were directed not only against the kind of education they were receiving but against the prevailing social order and the Gaullist regime. • Although some of the political agitation by students was only remotely related to educational reform, it was symptomatic of the more pervasive discontent of the students with the highly centralized and rigorously selective university system. De Gaulle • As is true in most advanced national, higher education is the mean to success and material security in France. While the numbers of French students seeking entry to universities increased in the post-World War II era, the universities responded slowly. • The Ministry of Education in 1968 agreed to introduce reforms to permit greater popular participation and to encourage more institutional autonomy in higher education. • The critics charged that the Ministry of education proposed to retained control of the distribution of funds and of faculty appointments. • In 1969, De Gaulle resigned as president and retired from public political life. A May 1968 poster: "Be young and shut up.

23. A Partial Turn Leftward • In 1981, Francoise Mitterrand led a rejuvenated Socialist Party to victory in the presidential elections and to control in the National Assembly. • Mitterrand’s government signaled a slight turn to the left as it increased social benefits, raised the minimum wage, and imposed higher taxes on the higher income groups. • In order to reduce inflation he encouraged more privatization and reduced public expenditures. • In education, one of the persistent issues has been that of government aid to religious schools, particularly those conducted by the Roman Catholic Church. • Although church-state tensions have diminished since World War II, the issue still remains as a point of potential conflict. Francoise Mitterrand • In 1960, a compromise was effected that provided government subsidies to private schools that conformed to the state-mandated curricula and standards. • Before, leftist political parties have sought to reduce or to eliminate government subsidies to the church schools. • During the 1980s, the socialist government proposed reduction in the amount of support for church schools. • This is still a point of conflict.

24. Contemporary Education Structures • Despite the reforms of French education after World War II, it remains a highly centralized national system. • French secondary education remains closely tied to the goals of literary expression, philosophical understanding, the use of correct language, and the power of cultivating abstract thought. • The lyceum, remains the key educational institution that prepares one for social, economic, and political power. Admission to the lycee is highly competitive and its curriculum is rigorously. • Completing the lycee bring the student at age eighteen to the examinations for the coveted baccalaureate. About 30 percent of the age group earn the baccalaureate which entitles them to automatic admission to the university. • A unique feature of French higher education is the Grandes Ecoles, the Great Schools, which prepare future leadership elites in administration, engineering and management. -The Ecole Polytechnique provides high specialized preparation in engineering, technology, and management. -The Ecole Normale Superieur is notable by the highly academic nature of its curriculum designed to prepare a select group of secondary teachers for careers in the lycees. -The Ecole Nationale d’Administration prepares administrators and civil servants for upper-level positions in the government. • These highly prestigious Grandes Ecoles are considered even more important than the universities.

25. German Education • In 1808, Johann Gottlieb Fichte called for education according to Pestalozzi • Fichte believed that all Germans should be educated in order for the world to be progressively better • Fichte was known as a founding figure of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, bridges knowledge attained by reason and knowledge attained by the senses; influenced by Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte

26. ▀ Jahn recommended the curriculum to include patriotic history and literature. ▀ Jahn believed education to include the child's entire physical and cultural environment. ▀ Jahn was a German Prussian gymnastics educator. He had a role in forming Burschenschaften, group of young men who pledged to bring about a united Germany. 1819 – Prince Klemens Metternich ▀ In 1819, Prince Klemens Metternich led the decision that established conservative ideology in the universities after a journalist was assassinated by a student during a patriotic festival, sponsored by the Burschenschaften. ▀ Metternich's full name was Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar von Metternich-Winneberg-Beilstein. He was idolized by Henry Kissinger, who wrote his dissertation on “Metternich's achievements in holding together the crumbling Austrian Empire” and was published in 1957. Friedrich Jahn ▀ Also in 1808, Friedrich Jahn had an educational philosophy which called for a national unity that would ultimately break down class divisions.

27. ▀ From 1817 – 1838, Prussian education followed the Hegelian philosophy (Georg Friedrich Hegel) as a result of being ruled by Baron Karl von Altenstein, and his supervisor of secondary schools, Johannes Schulze, fervent disciples of Hegel. (Prussia was one of five large kingdoms that was part of the German Confederation, established in 1789.) ▀ Through their vision of Hegel's philosophy, education meant that: 1) the individual's life acquired meaning only through complete identification with the state, and 2) the state was justified in exercising unrestricted power. ▀ Organizational structure of Prussian education followed socioeconomic class divisions: 90% received a basic education in Volksschulen, primary vernacular schools, and 10% attended the gymnasium, a college preparatory school. ▀ Those attending teacher training institutions had the benefits of receiving a broadened curriculum. Herbartianism ▀ Johann Friedrich Herbart had great impact on German education. He believed that moral development was ultimate goal of education. He was known for the phrase “apperceptive mass,” a destination where repeated ideas were lodged, and these ideas in turn were to be emphasized by the teacher since Herbart considered these ideas to dominate a student's life.

28. ▀ Herbartian teaching method consisted of five phases: ▪ preparation – prior knowledge ▪ presentation – actual teaching ▪ association – compare/contrast ▪ generalization – formation of a general idea ▪ application – comprehension ▀ Herbartianism was accepted by other countries, namely Japan and the U.S. ********************************************************** ▀ Around 1870, German kingdoms were united and as a means of becoming a major world power, education included the teaching of nationalistic and patriotic values. ▀ Vocational and adult technical schools became popular, due to Germany being a leader in industrialization. This continued through 1918, and also the two-track system (separation of lower and higher classes) Johann Friedrich Herbart ▀ Herbart studied under Fichte. ▀ Johann was a very popular name during the 19th century because it was the custom to give the child two names, the first being a Christian name.

29. ▀ Mittelschule was established – like a middle school, it came between elementary and secondary schools; attended by children of lower middle classes ▀ Three types of secondary schools: 1) traditional gymnasium – prestigious school, graduates were given preference in university admissions; 2) Realgymnasium – more modern school; 3) Oberrealschule – emphasized math, science, and modern languages Weimar Republic ▀ From 1918-1933, Germany was under the Weimar Republic, and as such continued to have public and private elementary schools (with religion now part of curriculum in the public schools) ▀ In addition to elementary and secondary schools (Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and Oberrealschule) a new secondary school, Aufbauschule, was introduced – educate gifted children from lower classes for entry into universities ▀ National Assembly convened in the city of Weimar to produce a new constitution after the German Empire was abolished following nation's defeat in WWI. Population - 62,000.

30. Adolf Hitler's Days ▀ From 1934-1945, Germany came under Nazi philosophy: fostering of sound, healthy, and pure Germanic racial stock; development of citizens who were obedient to authority and accepted responsibilities; dissemination of ordinary and useful culture ▀ A major implementation at the universities was politicalization (Hitler disfavored intellectuals, and solely concentrated on political accomplishments.) ▀ Hitler had an incestual affair with his half-sister's daughter, Geli Raubal, who was found shot to death (rumored to have been murdered by Hitler for her infidelity). Hitler was involved with Eva Braun for 12 years, married her the day before both committed suicide. ▀ Around 1946-1960s, Germany was recovering from Nazi hell, and the 10 German states were given control of their own state's education. ▀ From 1989-1991, states had most direct responsibility for primary and secondary education, with each state having a Minister of Education. ▀ At this time, there was an extensive development of vocational and technical schools, due to Germany's national economic development Eva Braun Geli Raubal

31. German Education Today: ▀ Grundschule – elementary school, lasts for four or six years, depending on state (parents have choces for elementary schools: state school, Waldorf School, Montessori method, Protestant or Catholic parochial schools) ▀ After Grundschule – four options to secondary schooling: ■ Hauptschule – least academic, until grade 9 ■ Realschule – middle school until grade 10 ■ Gymnasium – Grammar school, until grade 12 or 13, with exit exam qualifying for university ■ Gesamtschule – comprehensive school, with all options of three “tracks” above

32. Russian Education ▀ In 1828, Nicholas I established “Nicholas System” - stop Russian liberalism by suppressing people and ideas ▀ He favored an education that called for autocracy, Orthodoxy, and nationalism ▀ Parish schools existed for children of lowest social classes, and district schools for children of merchants, townspeople Nicholas I ▀ In 1864, Alexander II (Nicholas' son) created zemstvo schools, which provided education in rural villages and small towns outside of Russia. ▀ Peasants were hesitant to receive education; preferred farm work. ▀ From 1881-1917, zemstvos enjoyed popularity and improved elementary education. Alexander II

33. ▀ Count Leo Tolstoy was significant in Russian education because of his writings. He opened school at Yasnaya Polyana, his estate, in 1859. He proposed to establish a Society of National Education in order to improve Russian education. ▀ Tolstoy saw education as a morally creative force – advance human community. ▀ Tolstoy married Sophia Behrs, who was 16 years his junior, and had 13 children with her (five of whom died). Tolstoy ran up a gambling debt while at the university, failing academically and socially. Had an illegitimate son with a married peasant before marrying Behrs. ▀ In 1881, Alexander III implemented tsarist autocracy – reinforce autocracy, Orthodoxy, and nationalism (much like Nicholas I in 1828) ▀ On Jan. 25, 1905, “Bloody Sunday” occurred – initial event that led to end of tsarism ▀ Lenin's Bolsheviks took power in 1917, and imposed a Communist dictatorship in Russia. ▀ Nikolai Lenin supported the implementation of coeducational working-class schools in 1919 – to achieve economic modernization of the Soviet Union

34. ▀ Anatoli Lunacharski – Worker's School reflected Soviet philosophy of a classless society in which every child would have an identical education and an opportunity for higher education ▀ Lunacharski borrowed from Montessori, Dewey, Thorndike theories ▀ Polytechnical education became popular (helped produce classless society) ▀ In 1928, Joseph Stalin introduced Five-Year Plan, which focused on industrialization, and school became authoritarian again. (train scientists, technicians, and skilled workers) ▀ From 1945-53, A. A. Zhdanov implemented Stalinism very harsh; distorted scholarly research ▀ In 1956, Nikita Khrushchev recommended returning to polytechnical education (vocational schools), however education in Russia focused on subject matter disciplines, especially math and science. ▀ In 1970, Russian education aimed to establish academic skills with some vocational training

35. ▀ In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev applied principles of Perestroika, restructuring the Soviet Union (in education, re-educate the young generation), and Glasnost, making the country's management transparent and open for debate, therefore Soviet people would support Perestroika (in education, willingness to innovate) ▀ In 1991, Gorbachev faced many difficulties trying to keep a unified central government that he failed ▀ In 1995, Gorbachev resigned as president of what was Soviet Union. ▀ Gorbachev marked 20 years of Perestroika in 2005; he resides in Moscow. ▀ In May 2006, a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) was signed between the U.S. Dept. of Education and the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia Federation to ensure a quality education and skills to succeed in a global economy. Focus of agreement is on math, science, information technology, and foreign languages.

36. Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burschenschaften http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Jahn http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Herbart http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klemens_Wensel_von_Metternich http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia http:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalin

37. Sources http:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic http:www.iep.utm.edu/f/fichtejg/htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_Acts http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrialism#Social_effects http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Britain.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_Education_Act_1870 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_England#Voluntary_aided_.28VA.29_schools http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_Education_Act_1870#Principles http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_Monarchy