Research Methods

1. Research Methods Will make up Section C on exam

2. Questions? • Memory is enhanced by using unusual visual imagery? • The brain has different lobes which have different functions? • We experience different stages of sleep? Are the above true? How do we know this?

3. The answer is: because they are based on research findings, i.e. the results of studies conducted by psychologists using the scientific method.

4. Research Methods • Are the scientific procedures, used to plan research and gather findings (experiments, case studies, questionaries, self reports) • Scientific means... Use steps that are systematic and ordered. StepsIdentify the research questions  Formulate the hypothesis  Design the study  Gather the data  Process the data  Write the research report

5. Experiments • Experiment: one variable is deliberately manipulated in order to see if it causes a change in another variable • Tests a cause-effect relationship. E.G. Does anxiety effect performance? Does isolation lead to depression? Q: Which one are we manipulating and which one are we measuring?

6. Advantages of an experiment • Finds a cause – effect relationship (does one variable directly influences another variable) • Test hypothesis. • Control variables. • Control other variables that may impact on the outcome (extraneous). • IV can be manipulated. • Replication: can repeat the experiment. Age and time spent in REM sleep

7. Cause/effect definition • Any cause of change is hopefully the IV and the effectis seen on the DV.

8. How do we collect evidence for experiments ? Random Allocation – P  S Population:all members of a group the researcher is interested in Sample: a subset of the population Convenience Sample: people who are available Random-stratified sample: layers chosen randomly in the correct proportion Stratified Sample: “Strata” = Layers Sample that represents all layers within a population in correct proportions Random Sample: Every member of the population has an equal chance – picking a name out of a hat

9. Random Selection = All member of the population into a hat = YES = Only the first 40 that replied to the advertisement in the paper = NO

10. Population and sample - First year psychology students and 56 first year psychology students. - Tennis plays on a Tuesday night and all tennis players. - Night shift workers and the 14 that volunteered for the study.

11. Judy, an educational psychologist, was interested in studying the effects of positive reinforcement on students’ mathematics performance at school. Judy works at Mountain Hills Secondary College, a coeducational secondary school. There are 100 Year 8 students at the school: 60 females and 40 males. The Year 8 students are aged between 12.5 and 14.5 years old. Judy selected two of the Year 8 mathematics classes (Class A and Class B) to participate in the study. Class A contained 20 students: 12 females and 8 males. Class B contained 23 students: 14 females and 9 males. Informed consent was obtained from the students.

12. Sampling Procedures • 1) probability sampling: equal chance. • E.G flip of a coin = random and stratified random • 2) non-probability sampling: readily available. • E.G. Everyone at Sebastopol college = convenience and stratified

13. Sample: The sample is said to be representative of the population when it mirrors the characteristics of the population.

14. Sample = subset Divided into 2 equalgroups Controlled GroupExperimental Group Will have nothing done to them Used for comparison /baseline measure No alcohol Have something done to them To see what the outcome is Given alcohol Two groups should begin the experiment as equal as possible

15. Controlled group keep doing the same as what they have been doing in the past. • Gatorade and energy levels…

16. School uniform (in the past have not had a school uniform) and sense of belonging • What would the controlled group wear and what would the experimental group wear? • Sleep deprivation and concentration • Controlled group = • Experimental group =

17. Variables…. • Independent Variable:The variable which is manipulated, changed or varied in some way by the experimenter. • There are usually two values of the IV e.g. • Noise or no noise • Rhymes or synonyms • Dependent Variable:The outcome being measured. • Shows any effect of the IV.

18. Tooth decay and eating lollies IV = number of lollies eaten / lollies or no lollies DV = tooth decay • Study score and number of hours studied IV= number of hours studied / no study DV = study score

19. Drinking soft drink and dehydration • Computer usage and headaches • TV watching and engagement at school • Listening to a radio broadcast of a sports event while studying for a test decreases performance on the test • People will behave differently in a crowd from the way they behave when alone • Daydreaming occurs more often when a person is engaged in a simple task than when they are performing a complex task

20. What we need to know so farAnswer the below questions • Why are research methods scientific? • List 3 advantages of an experiment? • Define the terms population and sample • There are 4 different types of sampling methods – random, stratified, random stratified and convenience. Which 2 are probability sampling and which 2 are non-probability sampling? • What is the difference between the control and experimental groups? • Is the IV or the DV be manipulated?

21. Why are research methods scientific? • Evidence • Due to a cause effect r/ship • List 3 advantages of an experiment? - Finds a cause – effect relationship - Can control variables. • Can control other variables that may impact on the outcome. • IV can be manipulated • Replication

22. Define the terms population and sample • Population = all people of interested • Sample = a subset of the population (participants) • There are 4 different types of sampling methods – random, stratified, random stratified and convenience. Which 2 are probability sampling and which 2 are non-probability sampling? • Random & random stratified = Probability • Stratified & convenience = Non-probability

23. What is the difference between the control and experiential groups? • Control = not exposed to the IV, used for comparison • Experimental = are exposed to the IV or manipulated in some way • Can the IV or the DV be manipulated? - IV and the DV is the outcome

24. Extraneous Variable / Controlled Variables: Any other unwanted variable that can also cause the change in the DV effecting results. e.g. Amount of sleep and headaches. What else other than sleep can cause headaches? Stress, Heat, Sickness, Eyestrain Therefore need to control these at the start of an experiment to make sure the amount of sleep is the only thing that causes headaches in the experiment

25. Q: Does meditation improve performance on a VCE exam • IV = DV = • Extraneous/controlled variables =

26. Categories of Extraneous Variables 1) Participant-related: behaviour of participant. • A) Placebo effect= tendency for participants expectations to influence the way they behave. E.G – think they are receiving alcohol so act silly. • To overcome these we use research designs

27. 2) Environmental related: Noise, heat, time 3) Experimenter effect: behaviour of the experimenter= Self-fulfilling prophecy. E.g nodding the head

28. Confounding variables/uncontrolled: type of extraneous variable that is uncontrolled. • Occur in the procedure and make the results not reliable. • Can not be certain that it was the IV that caused the change in the DV.

29. Confounding Variables • E.g. Amount of sleep and headaches. At the beginning of the experiment all factors have been controlled. However during the experiment someone is put on medication or someone has an issue in their family, or starts a new sport job that requires shift work.

30. Comparing extraneous and confounding variables.

31. Scientific Method: a method of gaining knowledge by research being manipulated • Aim: what does the researcher want to find out? • Experimental / research hypothesis: testable statement predicting the outcome of a study (lacks description) • E.g = it is hypothesised that regular study improves performance

32. Operational hypothesis: describes how the researcher will measure the levels of the variables being measured when predicting the outcome (states how the IV and DV will be measured). • E.G = it is hypothesised that year 12 Phoenix College Psychology students who study after school everyday for 30minutes will gain a higher mark than those who do not study operationalise by scores on their end of year Psy exam.

33. Operational Hypothesis must include • IV • Population (not the sample) • How the variables will be operationalised (measured) • DV (IPOD) Why is it important to have an operational hypothesis: states how one will be administered and the other measured

34. Research Hypothesis: Testable predication set at the start of an experiment.Question…. Does weather effects mood? • An operational hypothesis will give detail about weather and mood.

35. Does weather effects mood? • It is hypothesised that 18-30 year olds from Victoria who experience consistent fine weather over 25 degrees for more than a week will report a consistent good mood compared to those who do not experience fine weather operationalised by a self report at the end of a week.

36. How to construct an Operational Hypothesis • 1) Identify and Operationalise the 2 variables Sleep deprivation = sleeping four hours or less for 3 consecutive nights Cognitive functioning = score obtained on the oral comprehension test • 2) Identify the population (not the sample, so no numbers should be used) Male and female Victorian secondary school students aged 14 – 16

37. 3) Link the 2 variables in a relationship with the population It is hypothesis that male and female Victorian secondary school students aged 14 -16 who have slept for 4 hours or less per night for 3 consecutive nights will achieve a significantly lower score than those who have experienced normal sleeping times operationalised by an oral comprehension test.

38. Aim = regular sun exposure leads to skin cancer • Hypothesis = it is hypothesised that more sun exposure leads to more cancerous cells. • Operational Hypothesis = IV = Population = Operationalised = DV =

39. It is hypothesised that participants aged between 18-40 who go to the solarium 3 times a week will develop more skin cancerous cells than participants who do not go to the solarium at all during the week operationalized by monthly check up results.

40. Regular exercise and mood • AIM = does regular exercise increase mood levels? • Hypothesis = It is hypothesised that participants who engage in regular activity will have heightened mood levels • Operational Hypothesis = Population = secondary school students aged between 12 and 15 IV = regular activity DV = mood levels Operationalized = Physical Activity class 3 times a week (IV) and ……. You make up how you will operationalise mood levels.

41. It is hypothesised that secondary school students aged between 12 and 15 who participate in physical activity class 3 times a week will have increased energy levels compared to those who participate in no physical activity classes during the week operationalized by observation of mood levels every Friday at school.

42. Reading enhances vocabulary • How do we define/measure reading and vocabulary • It needs to be more clearly and precisely expressed and in particular, the variables need to be defined in operational terms • IV = Reading or not reading • DV = Vocabulary (scores/improvement on vocabulary)

43. Operational hypothesis • It is hypothesised that VCE students from Sebastopol college who read for 30minutes a day will perform better on a vocabulary task compared to those who did not read operationalized by scores of 20 difficult words.

44. Research Designs (experimental designs) Ways of creating equal groups in order to control extraneous (other) variables • Independent Group Design • Matched Participants Design • Repeated Measures Design • They make sure the only difference between the 2 groups is the IV(alcohol and reaction time), making sure alcohol is the only thing (IV) that influences reaction time(DV)

45. 1) Independent Groups • Randomly allocate sample into 2,3,4 ect groups – flip a coin, names out of a hat • Result = groups have a mix of participant variables

46. 2) Matched Participants • Carefully match participants on certainkey characteristics, then put one member of each pair into the C and E group • Examples: age, drinking habits, gender & IQ

47. 3) Repeated Measures Design • Use the same group of participants twice in the controlled and experimental condition

48. Note Whenever a question on an exam asks about confounding variables when talking about repeated measures Answer must be practice and boredom

49. How do we overcome the practice and boredom effects? • Counterbalancing: reversing the order of half the participants. Half the participants do condition 1 then 2, and the other half doing condition 2 then 1. alcohol No alcohol Alcohol No alcohol

50. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WnBOTsP8z4g