Primary Data

1. Primary Data

2. Behavior Checklist Purchase Behavior Use Behavior What How Much How Where When Who

3. Basic Choices Among Means for Collecting Primary Data Degree of Structure Structured Unstructured Degree of Disguise Undisguised Disguised Communication Personal Interview Telephone Interview Mail Questionnaire Method of Administration Degree of Structure Structured Unstructured Degree of Disguise Undisguised Disguised Observation Setting Natural Contrived Method of Administration Human Mechanical

4. Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Mail * May be only method able to reach respondent * Sampling frame easily developed when mailing lists are available *Not subject to interviewer bias *Respondents work at their own pace *Assures anonymity of respondent *Wide distribution possible *Best for personal, sensitive questions *Generally least expensive *Very little control in securing response from specific individual *Cannot secure response from illiterates *Cannot control speed of response; long response time *Researcher cannot explain ambiguous questions *Does not allow probing with open-ended questions *Difficult to change sequence of questions *Sequence bias; respondents can view entire questionnaire as they respond

5. Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Telephone *Relatively low cost *Wide distribution possible *Interviewer supervision is strong; less interviewer bias *Relatively strong response rates (much higher than mail surveys) *One of quickest methods of data collection *More difficult than with personal interviews to determine that appropriate respondent is being interviewed *Less difficulty and cost in handling “call backs” than in-home interviewer *Allows easy use of computer support *Sequence of questions is easily changed *Difficult to establish representative sampling frame due to unlisted numbers *Cannot use visual aids *More difficult to establish rapport over the telephone than in person *Does not handle long interview well in most cases *Subject to some degree of interviewer bias (but much less than with personal interview)

6. Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages In-Home Personal Interview * Probably highest response rate *Best for getting response from specific, identified person *Allows use of any type of question/ questionnaire *Sequencing of questions is easily changed *Allows probing of open-ended questions *Allows clarification of ambiguous questions *Permits easy use of visuals *Generally narrow distribution *Interviewer supervision and control difficult to maintain *Often difficult to identify individuals to include in sampling frame *Generally most expensive method of administration *Costly to revisit “not-at-homes” *Relatively slow method of administration *Subject to interviewer bias Mall Intercept Same Advantages as In-Home Interview, PLUS: * Relatively short project completion time *Less expensive than in-home interview *Much better interviewer supervision and control than in-home interview * Sample control is more difficult than with in- home personal interview in terms of identifying a representative sample *Interviews typically need to be shorter than in- home interview

7. Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Internet * Very fast turnaround * Very inexpensive *Fairly versatile (e.g., can show print ads, beauty shots of products, can play music, video, in addition to survey) *Survey responses automatically entered into a data file *International sample possible *Sample is still not “representative” of general consumer markets (U.S. or worldwide) *Response rates are dropping as novelty declines *Respondents may have concerns with privacy

8. Primary Data: Overview • Types of Primary Data: • Demographic / Socioeconomic Characteristics • Psychological / Lifestyle Characteristics • Attitudes / Opinions • Awareness / Knowledge • Intentions • Motivation • Behavior • Qualities of Primary Data: • Versatility • Business logistics: speed and cost • Data quality: objectivity and accuracy • Two Classes of Primary Data • Observation • Communication

9. Comparing Methods of Administering Questionnaires

10. Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages (+) and Disadvantages (-) • Personal Interview (At Home or Mall) • Sampling control: • + High response rates; best for getting response from specific, identified person • - Generally narrow distribution, difficult to identify sampling frame • Information control: • + Allows use of any type of question; sequencing of questions is easily changed; allows probing of open-ended questions; allows clarification of ambiguous questions; permits easy use of visuals and other sensory stimuli, mall interview needs to be shorter than at-homes • - Subject to interviewer bias, interviewer supervision difficult to maintain (though easier in mall than at-homes) • Administrative control: • - Generally most expensive method (at-homes even more than mall); relatively slow (though mall is quicker)

11. Transparency 7.8 Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages (+) and Disadvantages (-) • Written Formats (Mail, Fax, Web, Email) • Sampling control: • + May be only method able to reach certain respondents; sampling frame easily developed when mailing lists are available; wide distribution possible • - Low response rates; little control in securing response from specific individual; cannot control respondent=s speed of survey completion • Information control: • + Not subject to interviewer bias; respondents work at their own pace; ensures anonymity; best for personal, sensitive questions • - Researcher cannot explain ambiguous questions; does not allow probing; difficult to change sequence of questions; respondents can view entire questionnaire as they respond • Administrative control: • + Generally least expensive • - Long response time for mail, very short for email

12. Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages (+) and Disadvantages (-) • Telephone • Sampling control: • + Relatively strong response rates; wide distribution possible • - Difficult to establish representative sampling frame due to unlisted numbers • Information control: • + Less interviewer bias than in person, and interviewer supervision is stronger; sequence of questions is easily changed • - Cannot use visual aids; more difficult to establish rapport over the phone than in person • Administrative control: • + Relatively low cost; quick turnaround; little difficulty and cost in handling call-backs; allows easy use of computer support • - Interview must be brief

13. HIGHLY VERSATILE LIMITED phone fax mail email web personal (e.g., mall, home) LOW COST HI COST personal fax web mail phone email FAST TURN- AROUND SLOW web mail fax personal phone email Methods of Survey Administration Compared

14. Chapter 9Collecting primary data through observation

15. Observation as a data collection method ‘Observation involves the systematic observation , recording, description analysis and interpretation of people’s behaviour’ Saunders et al. (2009)

16. Types of observation The two main types • Participant observation – emphasises the discovery of meaning attached to actions (qualitative) • Structured observation – is concerned with frequency of actions (quantitative)

17. Participant observation (1) Definition ‘Where the researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and actions of subjects, enabling them to not merely observe what is happening but also feeling it’ Adapted from Gill and Johnson (2002)

18. Participant Observation

19. Data Generated by Participant Observation

20. Choice of participant observer role Determining factors • Purpose of the research and time available • Degree of suitability felt by the researcher • Organisational access • Ethical considerations

21. Data collection and analysis (3) Points to consider • Threats to validity • The perspective of the subject - not the researcher • Advantages and disadvantages of participant observation Saunders et al. (2009)

22. Advantages • It is good at explaining “what is going on” in particular social situation. • It heightens the researcher’s awareness of significant social process. • It is particularly useful for researchers working within their own organization. • Some participant observation affords the opportunity for the researcher to the experience ‘for real’ the emotions of those who are being researched. • Virtually all data collected are useful.

23. Disadvantages • It can be very time consuming. • It can pose difficult ethical dilemmas for the researchers. • They can be high levels of role conflict for the researcher. • The closeness of the researcher to the situation being observed can lead to significant observer bias. • The participant observer role is a very demanding one, to which not all researchers will be suited • Access to organizations may be difficult. • Data recording is often very difficult for the researcher.

24. Structured observation (1) Points to consider • Structured observation is systematic and aims to establish straightforward facts • Proliferation of the Internet potentially widens the scope of participant observation • Advantages and disadvantages of structured observation Saunders et al. (2009)

25. Structured observation (1)

26. Structured observation (2) Data collection and analysis • Choosing an ‘off the shelf’ coding schedule • Designing your own coding schedule • Combining both types of schedule • Use of simple (manual) or complex (computer) methods of analysis

27. Structured observation (2)

28. Structured observation (2)

29. Structured observation (2)

30. Structured observation (3) Threats to validity and reliability • Subject error • Time error • Observer effects and strategies to overcome this – habituation and minimal interaction Robson (2002)

31. Internet Mediated Observation • Online Communities • Online Social Networks • Blogs • Etc • Participant Observation

32. Videography • Micro-cameras • Video Recording • Challenges? • Data Analysis

33. Summary: Chapter 9 • Participant observation is used in a wide range of social settings • Participant observation means adopting a number of potential roles • Roles are differentiated according to the degree of concealed identity and participation in events adopted by the researcher

34. Summary: Chapter 9 • The aim of participant observation is to develop theory and avoid mere story telling • Structured observation is concerned with the frequency of events. It is characterised by high levels of predetermined structure and quantitative analysis • The main threats to reliability and validity are subject error, time error and observer effects

35. Chapter 10Collecting primary data using semi-structured, in-depth and group interviews

36. Research interviews Definition ‘An interview is a purposeful discussion between two or more people’ Kahn and Cannell (1957) Types of interview used in research Semi-structured Structured In-depth Group Saunders et al. (2009)

37. Research purpose and strategy (1) Forms of interview Saunders et al. (2009) Figure 10.1 Forms of interview

38. Types of interview • Structured interviews: use questionnaire based on a predetermined and ‘standardized’ or identical set of questions and we refer to them as interviewer administered questionnaires. • Semi-structure interviews: the researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be covered, although these may vary from interview to interview. • This means that you may omit some questions in particular interviews, given a specific organizational context that is encountered in relation to the research topic. • The order of questions also be varied depending on the flow of conversation.

39. Continued • On the other hand, additional questions may be required to explore your research question and objectives given the nature of events within particular organizations. • Unstructured interviews: are informal. You would use these to explore in-depth a general area in which you are interested. • refer to these as in-depth interviews. • There is no predetermined list of questions to work through in this situation, although you need to have a clear idea about the aspect or aspects that you want to explore. • The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events behavior and beliefs in relation to topic area.

40. Continued • So that this type of interaction is sometimes called ‘nondirective’. • It has been labeled as informant interview since it is the interviewees perceptions that guide the conduct of the interview. • In comparison, a participant (or respondent) interview is one where the interviewer directs the interview and the interviewee responds to the questions of the researcher. • We can also differentiate between types of interview related to the nature of interaction between the researcher and those who participate in this process. • Interview may be conducted one to one basis, between you and single participant(face to face)(telephone)(internet) (intranet)

41. Continued • There may be other situation where you conduct a number of participants to explore an aspect of your research through a group of discussion that you facilitate.

42. Interview and type of research • In an exploratory research study, in-depth interviews can be very helpful to find out what is happening and to seek new insight. Semi stretchered interviews may be used in relation to an exploratory study. • In descriptive studies structured interviews can be used as a means to identify general patterns. • In an explanatory study, semi structured interviews can be used in order to understand the relationships between variables, such as those revealed from a descriptive study, structured interview may also be used in relation to an explanatory study, in statistical sense.

43. Research purpose and strategy (2) Uses of different types of interview in each of the main research categories Saunders et al. (2009) Table 10.1 Uses of different types of interview in each of the main research categories

44. Non-standardised (qualitative) interviews Four key aspects • Purpose of the research • Significance of establishing personal contact • Nature of the data collection questions • Time required and completeness of process

45. Data quality (1) Issues to consider • Reliability • Forms of bias • Validity and generalisability

46. Data quality (2) The importance of preparation – the 5 Ps ‘prior planning prevents poor performance’ Saunders et al. (2009)

47. Interview preparation (1) Associated issues • Interviewer’s level of knowledge • Level of information supplied to interviewees • Creating an interview guide • Appropriateness of location

48. Interview preparation (2) Associated issues • Researcher’s appearance – dress code • Shaping the interview - opening comments • Approach to questioning – clarity and reducing bias • Use of critical incident technique

49. Interview preparation (3) Associated issues • Appropriate interviewer behaviour- verbal and non-verbal • Attentive listening skills and testing understanding • Approaches to data recording - notes and tape-recording • Cultural differences and bias

50. Interviewing competence • There are several areas where you need to develop and demonstrate competence in relation to conduct of semi structured and in-depth research interview . These areas are: • Opening the interview; • Using appropriate language; • Questioning; • Listening; • Testing and summarizing understanding; • Recording and dealing with difficult participants; • recording data.