Nigeria

1. Nigeria "Not all of us will hold government appointments, but all of us can contribute to the new dawn in Nigeria." -President Olusegun Obasanjo *Adapted from Comparative Government and Politics by Ethel Wood.

3. Nigeria: A study in contrasts • Strong democracy, susceptible to totalitarian rule • Vast resources, but 70% live in poverty • Population split evenly between Islam and Christianity • Dozens of ethnicities within borders.

4. Public Authority and Political Power • Independent nation since 1960 • Dilemma – “National Question”- How should the country be governed, who should govern and should Nigeria be a nation?? • Regional disagreements, hostilities and problem solving with force

5. Constitutionalism • 1st Constitution in 1914, but eight since. • Last one introduced in 1995 and heavily amended. • Constitutionalism doesn’t exist (no guiding sense of principles) • Without Constitutionalism, national question harder to answer.

6. Legitimacy • Low legitimacy • Little or no trust in leaders • As a colony, relied on British rule of law • Independent, military might and authoritarian rule led to corruption and cynicism. • Nigerians skeptical about their government.

7. Political Traditions • Pre-Colonial Era (800-1860) • Trade connections • Early influence of Islam • Kinship based politics • Complex political identities • Democratic impulses

8. The Colonial Era (1860-1960) • Authoritarian rule • Interventionist state • Individualism • Christianity • Ethnic politics

9. Independence (1960-present) • Parliamentary style of government replaced by a presidential system • Intensification of ethnic conflict • Military rule • Personalized rule/corruption • Federalism • Economic dependence on oil

10. Political Culture • Patron clientelism • Undeveloped civil society • Tension between modernity and tradition • Religious conflict

11. Geographic Influence • Located in West Africa • Population 120 million • Ethnic groups divided into Zones: • NW • NE • Middle Belt • SW • SE • So. zone

12. Political Change • Political Change in Nigeria can be analyzed by dividing its history into three parts: • Pre-colonial • Colonial • Modern eras • Sources of change have varied, but all had important consequences for modern Nigeria.

13. Pre-Colonial Era • Nigerian geography affected political, social and economic development. • Change occurred through cultural diffusion. • Fulani – came to north through jihad. • Fulani established Sokoto Caliphate. • Caliphate traded with Europeans and put an organized, central government in place based on religious faith. • South – Christianity dominated • Slave Trade in Nigeria

14. Colonial Era (1860-1960) • European Influence with indirect rule • Differences between North and South emphasized. • Introduction of western-style education • Literate population • Reinforced growing cleavages • Economic benefits

15. Modern Nigeria (1960-present) • Socialization in western values • 1966 – parliamentary government replaced by military dictatorship • Government changed hands quickly and violently. • Question as to whether Nigeria would survive as a country

16. Change and conflict • Ethnic identities source of conflict • Corruption among political elite • General Abacha • Promise to transfer power when country was “stable”. • Elections in 1999, Pres. Olusegun Obasanjo. (re-elected 2003) • Democracy?? (elections considered corrupt)

17. Society and Politics • Fragmented society, with important cleavages based on ethnicity. • Ethnicity • Religion • Region • Urban v. rural • Social class

18. Citizen and State • Nigeria is not a democracy (yet) • Activities in Civil Society showing change: • Press • Patron-Clientelism (prebendalism) • Voting behavior • Attitudes toward government

19. Political Framework • Pre-colonial days: regimes varied by regions • Colonization: authoritarian rule • Military style regime emerged in 20th century • Formally: federalist and democratic, but does not operate that way.

20. Political Parties • Regionally and ethnically based • Multiparty system reinforces cleavages • As of election 2003: major parties • People’s Democratic party (PDP) • All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP)

21. Elections and Electoral Procedures • Vote on three levels: local, state, national • Presidential elections • Legislative elections • Election Fraud

22. Interest Groups • Labor Unions • Business Interests • Human Rights Groups

23. National Government • Constitutions have provided for three branches of government, but executive branch dominates policy making. • Currently, neither federalism, nor checks and balances operate and state governments are totally dependent on the central government.

24. The Executive • In 1979, parliamentary system modeled after Britain replaced by presidential system. • US presidential model followed, including two terms for President. • The Executive Under military rule • Patrimonialism

25. The Bureaucracy • Growing civil service • Corruption and prebendalism • Para-statals • State Corporatism

26. The Legislature • The Nigerian legislature has taken several different forms since independence, and it has been disbanded a number of times by military rulers. • The Senate • The National Assembly

27. The Judiciary • During early years of independence, the Nigerian judiciary had a good deal of autonomy. • Judiciary undermined by military decrees • Judges render decisions manipulated by the government • Two notorious cases: • Mshood Abiolao • Ken Saro-Wiwa

28. The Military • Strong force behind policymaking in Nigeria. • Distinctions made between “military in government” and “military in barracks.” • Internal discord in military

29. Policymaking and Current Issues • Top down policy making process • Loyalty pyramid • System operates under the assumption that the military and political elite operate with only their self-interest in mind. • Patron-client system

30. Economic Issues • Result of loyalty pyramid is squandering of Nigeria’s wealth. • Deeply in debt, most live in poverty • Ethnic and regional hostilities and distrust of government led to diversion of oil money.

31. Oil: Strength or Weakness? • During 1970’s Nigeria’s oil wealth gave it international leverage. • Member of OPEC • Foreign countries rely on Nigeria in times of Mid-east conflict • When oil prices go down: Nigeria suffers.

32. Structural Adjustment • Nigeria relies on international organizations to help manage huge debt. • Structural Adjustment program with World Bank and IMF – attempted to decrease reliance on oil and improve Nigerian economy. • Para-statals still under state control, no real growth in private economic sector.

33. “Federal Character” • Benefits of Federalism (positive, desirable, shared power, people represented). • In Nigeria, goal is to seek a “federal character” for the nation. • Nigerian Constitution supports this goal. • Do Nigerian’s have enough in common to remain together as a country?

34. Reforms • Since military regime left in 1999: • Public enterprises have been privatized • Plan for alleviating poverty in place • Public wages increased • Some Abacha money returned to state • Nigeria’s financial reserves have grown because oil prices have been more stable in past few years.

35. A Fledgling Democracy? • Are recent reforms stabilizing Nigeria? • Elections may be interpreted to support either an optimistic or pessimistic view for Nigeria’s future prospects. • Experience of democracy

36. Terms and Concepts • Abacha • ANPP • Biafra • Babangida • Civil society • Constitutionalism • Corporatism • “federal character” • Hausa-Fulani • Igbo • Indirect rule • INEC • jihad Kanuri Kinship based politics “loyalty pyramd” “the National Question” Olusegun Obasanjo Para-statals Patrimonialism Prebendalism (patron-client) “true federalism” movement Yoruba