Research Methods

Research Methods

Step 1: Identification of the research problem e.g. “Why are we doing this?” “What is the topic of interest that needs to be researched so that questions can be answered.” Examples......??

What is a Scientific method? A quick revision: Scientific method is a series of systematic and orderly steps that researchers use to plan, conduct and report research.

Examples: Does caffeine really improve your performance on a math test?? Does the use of a hand-held-mobile phone while driving really increase the number of accidents on the road? Is a shaven male chest really more appealing for women than hairy male chest? Does sleep deprivation affect concentration? Are married couples happier than single people?

The next thing we naturally do is we take an educated guess: “Ok, the use of a hand-held-mobile phone while driving DOES probably increase the accidents on the road..” => Educated Guess

Step 2: Construction of a hypothesis Hypothesis = a testable prediction of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. It is an educated guess about what the results of the research will be.

Characteristics of a hypothesis: • Clear, precise and specific • Written carefully and as a SINGLE sentence • Testable Example: It is hypothesised / predicted that red P-plate drivers who receive defensive driving training will make fewer errors (as measured by a practical driving test in a driving simulator) than red P-plate drivers who have not received defensive driving training (as measured by the same driving test).

Step 3: Designing the method • How can our hypothesis be tested? • Experiments • Observational studies • Case studies • Surveys / Interviews / Rating scales • Longitudinal studies • Cross-sectional studies • Correlational studies

Step 4: Collecting the data • This is done after the research task when data are available for collection. This data is at this stage referred to as raw data => data that hasn’t been processed yet (coded or summarised). • Data collection techniques: p. 53 Direct observation, Questionnaire, Interview, Psychological test, Physiological test, Examination of archival files

Step 5: Analysing the data • Raw data is represented in a logical way to help determine whether the hypothesis is or is not supported. => summarising / dividing / subtracting etc... This raw data will then become results.

Step 6: Interpreting the data = conclusion about the data / results obtained. The aim(s) of the conclusion: “Do the results obtained in the research study support the hypothesis?” “How widely can the results/findings of the research study be applied?” -> generalisation

If the findings can in fact be generalised (applied) more widely (to the population from which the sample was drawn, then we say the research study has external validity.

Step 7: Reporting the research findings • Writing a report • L.A 2.1 – Group discussion 2.2 – Class discussion

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH • An experiment = is used to test whether one variable (thing) influences or causes a change in another variable (thing). Variable = any characteristic or value that can be changed or manipulated. Cause -> Effect Examples...???

Independent Variable (IV) = thing that can be manipulated by the experimenter in order to observe whether it affects another variable (thing) and what those effects are. It is the CAUSE of any changes that may result in other variables. Dependent Variable (DV) = thing that can be observed and measured. It is the response or EFFECT caused by manipulation of the IV.

Identify the IV and DV in the following statement: Six or less hours of sleep increases the frequency of headaches. “If...........(Independent Variable)....., then ...............(Dependent Variable).........” “If people sleep six or less hours (cause), the frequency of headaches is likely to increase (effect).”

Identify the IV and DV in each of the following (LA1.1 pg 18) • Receiving a reward for studying will increase the amount of time students engage in studying

Identify the IV and DV in each of the following (LA1.1 pg 18) • People who are in love perceive each other more positively than other people perceive them.

Identify the IV and DV in each of the following (LA1.1 pg 18) • Recall of information presented early in a list is better than recall of information presented later in a list

Identify the IV and DV in each of the following (LA1.1 pg 18) • People react quicker to sounds than visual stimuli

Identify the IV and DV in each of the following (LA1.1 pg 18) • Using adult language when talking to infants improves their vocabulary.

Identify the IV and DV in each of the following (LA1.1 pg 18) • People change their pitch of voice when lying.

Identify the IV and DV in each of the following (LA1.1 pg 18) • People who suffer from depression recall more negative experiences than positive experiences.

Identify the IV and DV in each of the following (LA1.1 pg 18) • Daydreaming occurs more frequently during simple tasks than during complex tasks

Identify the IV and DV in each of the following (LA1.1 pg 18) • Working on an assembly line are more productive when working alone than in a small group.

Extraneous variables = variables other than IV that can cause a change in the DV. “If people sleep six or less hours (cause/IV), the frequency of headaches is likely to increase (effect/DV).” However, other extraneous variables (causes) may increase the frequency of headaches such as: stress, illness, the use of medication

Researches actively look for and control or eliminate these extraneous variable prior to conducting the research. Why ???? - L.A 2.5 Class/Group discussion Homework: L.A. 1.8 Workbook, p. 21 – Part A

Experimental and control groups “Caffeine consumption increases the performance on a math test.” An experiment often requires the researcher to divide the participants into two groups: Experimental group = this group of participants is exposed to the experimental condition (caffeine – IV) Control group = this group of participants is NOT exposed to the experimental condition (IV caffeine is absent)

The function of the control group is to compare the performance of the experimental group in order to determine whether the independent variable has affected the dependent variable.

Simple Experiment Page 17 of text

Experimental settings • Laboratory setting – here experiments CAN be conducted under strictly controlled conditions. Why??? • Field setting – outside the laboratory, here the conditions of the experiment CANNOT be strictly controlled. Why??? Occurs in a real-life setting (relationship to the real world)

Advantages and Limitations of Experimental Research Advantages: • IV can be manipulated in order to observe the effect on the DV -> possible to test if there is cause and effect relationship between the IV and DV. • The experimenter has more control over extraneous variables than in other research methods (especially in laboratory setting). • The experiment can be replicated

Limitations: • Laboratory settings are often artificial and dissimilar to real life • Some things cannot be measured in a laboratory, e.g. breaking up families to measure the effects of family separation.

Sampling procedures Sample = a subsection, or smaller group, of research participants selected from a larger group called population of research interest. Example: If you were testing students from UYSC, your sample would be a selection of students from across the school

Population = the entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn. Example: all preschool children; all blonde-haired females, all VCE Psychology students etc..

Sampling - The process of selecting participants for a study. The sample should represent the population

Representative sample - a sample of a population that equally represents the population from which it was drawn Example: It a sample from a whole school were picked at random, they would only be representative if all year levels were represented in the sample

Random Sampling - Is a sampling procedure the ensures that every member of the population of research interest has an equal chance of being selected as a participant in a study Example: When people are picked at random from the electoral roll

Random Allocation - This is the process of assigning participants in an experimental group with each participant to the control or experimental group Example: drawing names out of a box or flipping a coin

Stratified Sampling - is the grouping by similarities of a sample into sub groups (or stratum). These sub groups help to group similar people together which leads to the results from groups who live and are surrounded by similar things Example: attitudes of adults feel towards arsonists who deliberately light fires were separated in groups by type of living areas like city and rural. This would end in different results.

Random stratified sampling - as above including the process of randomly selecting students for each of the different sub section (or stratum)

OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES • Definition: Observational study involves collection of data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs. • Example: An example of this is, the study of hierarchies or “pecking order” in groups, e.g the school year, or canteen area or in a group of friends, who is higher up in the order, if there is any order. • Advantages and Limitations: When studying a behaviour in a lab, we will not be able to observe the long term effects. Some behaviours can only be observed as they naturally occur and may not happen again

CASE STUDIES • Definition: an in-depth investigation on behaviour or an event of interest on a single person or situation • Example: investigating a child or small group on a developmental issue • Advantages: experimental factors are similar, could create a hypothesis that cold be tested on other individuals • Limitations: cannot be used on a large sample –therefore very specific and can be biased

Summary Quiz

1. Put the following Research steps in order: 1. Construction of a hypothesis 2. Identification of the research problem 3. Analysing the data 4. Designing the method 5. Collecting the data 6. Reporting the research findings 7. Interpreting data

1. Identification of the research problem 2. Construction of a hypothesis 3. Designing the method 4. Collecting the data 5. Analysing the data 6. Interpreting data 7. Reporting the research findings

2. Identify which one is NOT a Research Method • Observational studies • Case studies • Experiments • Interviews • Short studies • Longitudinal studies • Cross-sectional studies • Correlational studies • Interviews

3. What does the term raw data mean? • Data referring to a raw meat • Data referring to raw eggs • Both a) and b) • Data that have already been processed and are ready to be put in a report • Data that haven’t been processed yet

Research Methods