CHAPTER 1 3 Leadership

1. CHAPTER 13Leadership Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology

2. What is Leadership? • Leadership is the ability to guide a group toward the achievement of goals. • Leaders can be formally recognized by the organization, or individuals can emerge as informal leaders within work groups because they have some characteristic that the group members value. • Not all managers are leaders • What is the problem for psychological studies concerning leadership issues? • How can we avoid it?

3. Universalist Theories of Leadership • Universalist theories look for the major characteristics common to all effective leaders. • Great man/woman theory maintains that great leaders are born, not made. • Trait theory attempts to discover the traits shared by all effective leaders. • Traits are enduring attributes associated with an individual’s personality or physical makeup.

4. Universalist Theories of Leadership • Research indicates that extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, agreeableness, and emotional stability, in combination, are associated with effective leadership (Bono and Judge, 2004). • Possession of flexibility, charisma, and social intelligence are also important for leadership (Riggio, 1986). • The major problem with the original trait approach is that it was too general.

5. Behavioral Theories of Leadership • Behavioral leadership theories (derived from Ohio State and University of Michigan studies) focus on the behaviors common to effective leaders. • The Ohio State Leadership Studies identified two important leader behaviors through factor analysis: • Initiating structure (defining, organizing, structuring the work situation). • Consideration (showing concern for feelings and needs of followers). • Distinct categories – don’t necessarily coexist • IS  productivity • C  JS • Recent studies  both IS and C to different extents

6. Behavioral Theories of Leadership • The University of Michigan Leadership Studies also identified two important leader behaviors. • In task-orientated behaviors, leader behaviors focused on the work task. • In relationship-oriented behaviors, leader behaviors focused on maintaining interpersonal relationships on the job. • Both types of behaviors have been linked to effective leadership. • The difference from Ohio studies  R-O were seen as more effective • Followers of R-O leaders  more satisfied although both are related to work group performance

7. The Leadership Grid: The Marketing of Leadership Theory • 9.9. Team management • 1.9. Country club management • 5. 5. Middle of the road management • 9.1. Authority compliance management • 1. 1. Impoverished management

8. Contingency Theories of Leadership • 1. Fiedler’s contingency model maintains that effective leadership depends on a match between the leader’s style and the degree to which the work situation gives control and influence to the leader. The first step: • According to Fiedler, leaders may be primarily task-oriented, or primarily relationship-oriented. • How are we gonna identify them?

9. Contingency Theories of Leadership • To assess leaders’ task or relationship orientation, leaders use the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale to rate their most difficult follower. • Persons who give their least preferred coworkers very harsh ratings (low LPC scores) are task-oriented leaders. • Persons who rate their least preferred coworker somewhat leniently (higher LPC scores) are considered to be relationship-oriented.

11. Contingency Theories of Leadership • In Fiedler’s model, to assess the work situation, three variables are examined. • Leader-member relations refers to the quality of the relationship between leader and followers  followers’ loyalty for and acceptance of the leader. • Task structure is an assessment of how well elements of the work task are structured  whether the output can easily be evaluated, the group has well-defined goals, clear procedures for achieving these goals exist. • Position power is a leader’s authority to punish or reward  ability to hire, fire, discipline, and reward.

12. Contingency Theories of Leadership • According to Fiedler, task-oriented leaders are successful in very unfavorable situations (where leader-member relations are poor, the task is unstructured, and the leader has weak position power) because of their take-charge style. • Task-oriented leaders are also effective in very favorable situations because they encourage high productivity. • Relationship-oriented leaders are most effective when their situational control and influence are neither very high nor low.

14. Contingency Theories of Leadership • The path-goal theory states that a leader’s job is to help the work group achieve their desired goals, using one of four categories of behavior. • Directive behavior provides instructions and suggestions for job performance. • Achievement-oriented behavior concentrates on particular work outcomes. • Supportive behavior shows concern for workers’ well-being. • Participative behavior encourages members to assume active roles in planning and decision making.

15. Basic Idea

16. Path-Goal Theory Matrix

17. Contingency Theories of Leadership • The Decision-making model is a theory that matches characteristics of the situation with leader decision-making strategies. • The theory provides different decision-making strategies. • The theory predicts proper leader behavior in making decisions and gives “prescriptions” for the decision maker to follow.

20. Contingency Theories of Leadership • The leader-member exchange model (LMX theory) asserts that effective leadership is determined by the quality of the interaction between leaders and particular group members. • Leader-member exchange can range from low quality to high quality. • With high quality leader-member exchange, there is frequent, positive communication between leaders and members.

21. S S S S S S S S S S S S S Subordinate In-Group & Out-Group Subordinates • In-Group • more information, influence, confidence & concern from Leader • more dependable, highly involved & communicative than out-group Out-Group In-Group Leader • Out-Group • less compatible with Leader • usually just come to work, do their job & go home

22. Charismatic and Transformational Leadership Theories • Charismatic leadership theory states that leaders possess some exceptional characteristics that cause followers to be loyal and inspired. • Charismatic leaders communicate shared group goals and convey confidence in their own abilities and those of followers. • Charismatic leaders are most effective when goals are unclear and situational conditions are unstable. • Some researchers suggest that charismatic leaders possess exceptionally high-quality social skills and an ability to inspire followers at a deep emotional level (Riggio, 1987).

23. Charismatic and Transformational Leadership Theories • Transformational leadership focuses on the leader’s ability to provide shared values and a vision for the future of the work group. • There are four components of transformational leadership. • Idealized influence: the transformational leader is a positive role model. • Inspirational motivation: the leader inspires followers by providing a compelling vision of a positive future. • Intellectual stimulation: followers’ curiosity and creativity are stimulated and challenged. • Individualized consideration: the leader pays personal attention to each member’s needs and concerns.

25. PL Theory as An Example of Culture-Specific Leadership Theories • Paternalistic leaders Those who form a hierarchical relationship in which the role of the leader is to provide care, protection and guidance in work and non-work areas of employees’ lives in exchange for employees’ loyalty and deference towards the leader (Aycan, 2006). Five Dimensions of PL (Aycan, 2006): • Family atmosphere at workplace • Individualized relationships with subordinates • Involve in non-work lives of subordinates • Loyalty expectation • Status hierarchy and authority

26. The Self-Concept Based Motivational Theory of Charismatic Leadership (Shamir, House & Arthur, 1993) Transformational leaders... • give positive references to the subordinates’ self-efficacy and worth, encourage and motivate them for engaging in challenging tasks, and contribute to their self-development. • increase the salience of collective identity and enhance internalization of the values of the leader and the organization. The Theory of Paternalistic Leadership(Aycan, 2006) Paternalistic leaders... • engage in empowering supervision as a way to fulfilling their obligation towards employees. • create a family atmosphere in the workplace. • expect subordinates to accept the leader’s values and norms and internalize them. • Both transformational and paternalistic leaders show high level of support, care and consideration.

27. Mediating Processes: Extrinsic Motivational States Transformational leaders... • communicate that OCBs are instrumental for gaining tangible and intangible rewards. • improve the teamwork climate in which employees feel responsibility towards the group and share a mission. • increase employees’ desire to show their commitment to the group, the organization and the leader. Paternalistic leaders... • expect loyalty and deference from their subordinates. • emphasize the importance of formation and protection of the family atmosphere in the work place. • increase employees’ desire to avoid criticisms from the leader to protect the caring and nurturing relationship with the leader.

28. SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY OF LEADERSHIP • Leadership  A broad area of research in social psychology, as well as in other disciplines such as industrial and organizational psychology, sociology, and management. • In more recent conceptualizations  Leadership  A dyadic process which is directed by not only leaders’ but also followers’ cognitions and behaviors. • The role of followership as inputs rather than outputs of leadership process. • Social identity theory of leadership  A spin-off of social identity theory (SIT; Tajfel & Turner, 1979) and self-categorization theory (SCT; Turner, 1985; Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987)… • Emphasizes the dyadic and group identification-based nature of leadership (Hogg, 1996)

29. SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY OF LEADERSHIP • The basic proposition of SIT of leadership  Followers are likely to endorse and support individuals who represent the group identity, which is defined by specific values and norms differentiating the in-group from out-groups, as their leaders (Hogg & Hains, 1996). • Followers who are more identified with their groups than others  More sensitive to others’ representativeness or prototypicality of the given group. • Followers’ social identification level would moderate the relationship between leader group prototypicality and endorsement of the leader (Hogg, 2001; Hogg & van Knippenberg, 2003; Lord & Brown, 2004; van Knippenberg, van Knippenberg, De Cremer, & Hogg, 2004). • Contextual variables that affect perceived prototypicality of a leader in specific groups… • Group or work context, • Leadership style or behavioral pattern, • Follower dispositions and motivations.

30. Follower Outcomes of Leader Group Prototypicality • Leader group prototypicality… • Leadership endorsement and perceived leadership effectiveness (e.g., Hains et al., 1997; Fielding & Hogg, 1997; Hogg et al., 1998; Hogg et al., 2006) • Perceived fairness in in-group contexts (e.g., Haslam & Platow, 2001a, 2001b; Platow, Mills, & Morrison, 2000; Platow & van Knippenberg, 2001) • Trust in leader (e.g., van Knippenberg, De Cremer, & van Knippenberg, 2007) • Perceived procedural fairness (e.g., van Dijke & De Cremer, 2008) • Cooperation with the leader (e.g., De Cremer & van Vugt, 2002) • Job satisfaction (e.g., Cicero et al., 2007; Pierro et al., 2005; Pierro et al., 2009) • Creative effort and performance (Hirst et al., 2009)

31. Applications of Leadership Theories • According to the various theories of leadership you learned up to now, classify the above specified leaders: • Hitler • Kennedy • Gandhi • Usame bin Ladin • Sakip Sabanci • Princess Diana

32. Applications of Leadership Theories • According to the various theories of leadership you learned up to now, classify the above specified leaders: • Suleyman Demirel • Evita • Turgut Ozal • Obama • Ataturk • Recep Tayyip Erdogan • Kemal Kilicdaroglu

33. Applications of Leadership Theories • Leadership training can follow two general approaches. • Teaching leaders diagnostic skills for assessing situations to determine types of leader behaviors that work best. • Teaching leaders specific skills or behaviors that they lack. • A combination of both approaches is likely to be most effective.

34. Applications of Leadership Theories • Research in redesigning jobs indicates that leaders may be unnecessary in certain instances, leading to a search for “substitutes for leadership”. This applies to: • Job enrichment groups. • Groups where all members have equal status and high skills/abilities. • Work tasks that are well-structured and intrinsically satisfying to workers. • Shared leadership, where leadership is shared among the group members rather than being centralized in one person.