Changes Over Time

1. Changes Over Time

2. Sea Horse Reproduction

3. Mule • In its common modern meaning, a mule is the offspring of a maledonkey and a female horse The term "mule" (Latinmulus) was formerly applied to the infertile offspring of any two creatures of different species. • The chromosome match-up more often occurs when the jack (male donkey) is the sire and the mare (female horse) is the dam. Sometimes people let a stallion (male horse) run with a jenny (female donkey) for as long as six years before she becomes pregnant. Mules and hinnies are almost always sterile (see fertile mules below for rare cases). The sterility is attributed to the differing number of chromosomes of the two species: donkeys have 62 chromosomes, whereas horses have 64. Their offspring thus have 63 chromosomes which cannot evenly divide.

4. Zorse • Zorse • A zorse or zebrula is the offspring of a zebrastallion and a horsemare; the rarer reverse pairing is sometimes called a hebra. It is a zebroid: this term refers to any hybrid equine with zebra ancestry. • The zorse is shaped more like a horse than a zebra, but has boldly striped legs and, often, stripes on the body or neck. Like most other interspecies hybrids, it is infertile. • Zebras, donkeys and horses are both members of the family equus -- equines. Equines can be crossbred to produce hybrids. They are all slightly different in genetic makeup, but still all equines. That is, horses have 64 chromosomes, zebra have between 44 and 62 (depending on species). Zorses can be male or female, but are sterile since their chromosome count is 63.

7. Standard BIO 8 a-eThe student will investigate and understand how populations change through time. Key concepts include: • a) evidence found in fossil records; • b) how genetic variation, reproductive strategies, and environmental pressures impact the survival of populations; • c) how natural selection leads to adaptations; • d) emergence of new species; and • e) scientific explanations for biological evolution.

8. Charles Darwin The Father of Evolution

9. History • Darwin’s World (1809 - 1875) • Height of the British colonial period. • Beginning of the Industrial Revolution. • New Ideas: • Taxonomy of Carolus Linnaeus • Lyell’s “Principles of Geology”

10. Binomial System of Nomenclature Carolus Linnaeus (1707 – 1778) Believed in the “Fixity of Species”

11. Charles Lyell • Father of Geology

12. Charles Lyell’s view of the process of formation of sedimentary rock

13. Suggests that sedimentary rock is very old – therefore the species that are represented in this rock must also be old. • Most fossils are found in sedimentary rock. • Older fossils will be found below younger fossils.

14. Charles Darwin At the age of 22, he joined a 5 year expedition aboard the HMS Beagle to map the coast of South America

15. The voyage of the Beagle

16. Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution: 1. Members of a population have heritable variations.(Inheritance of traits)

17. 2. In a population, more individuals are produced than the environment can support. They compete for food and shelter. (overpopulation- struggle for survival).

18. 3. Some individuals have adaptive characteristics that enable them to survive and reproduce better than other individuals (survival of the fittest).

19. 4. An increasing number of individuals in succeeding generations have these adaptive characteristics (natural selection)

20. Darwin described his theory in the form of a long essay which he called “On the Origin of Species”.

21. Concerned about the public’s response to his ideas(remember what happened to Galileo) Arranged to publish his work … AFTER HIS DEATH !!

22. Publication of “On The Origin of Species” in 1859

23. Charles Darwin At age 50 (1859) At age 65 (1874)

24. Charles Darwin Before publication After publication

25. Through his observations made in the Galapagos Islands, Charles Darwin formulated a theory of how species change over time, called natural selection.

27. Natural selection is governed by the principles of genetics. • The change in the frequency of a gene in a given population leads to a change in a population and may result in the emergence of a new species. • Natural selection operates on populations over many generations.

28. Evolution • A change in successive generations of organisms, due to random mutation and changes in the organisms’ surroundings

29. Evolution takes place through a set of processes that include: • mutation, • adaptation, • natural selection, • extinction.

30. Mutation • Genetic mutations and variety produced by sexual reproduction allow for diversity within a given population. • Many factors can cause a change in a gene over time.

31. Mutation • Mutations are important in how populations change over time because they result in genetic changes to the gene pool.

32. Mutations are inheritable changes because a mutation is a change in the DNA code

33. Mutation- a change in the DNA A mutation may result in a: 1.favorable change or adaptation in genetic information that improves a species’ ability to exist in its environment

34. Mutation- a change in the DNA 2. an unfavorable change that does not improve a species’ ability to exist in its environment.

35. Mutation- a change in the DNA 3. in a change in the genetic information that neither harms nor helps the species.

36. Adaptation • Adaptations are structures, functions, or behaviors that enable a species to survive.

37. Adaptation • Depending on the rate of adaptation, the rate of reproduction, and the environmental factors present, structural adaptations may take millions of years to develop.

38. Natural Selection • the survival and reproduction of the individuals in a population that exhibit the traits that best enable them to survive in their environment. • The Survival of the Fittest

39. Natural Selection • Populations produce more offspring than the environment can support.

40. Natural Selection • The unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce leads to the gradual change in a population, generation after generation over many generations.

41. Natural Selection • Organisms with certain genetic variations will be favored to survive and pass their variations on to the next generation.

42. These five canine species evolved from a common ancestor through natural selection Jackal African wilddog Wolf Coyote Fox Thousands tomillions of yearsof natural selection Ancestral canine

43. When humans choose organisms with specific characteristics as breeding stock, they are performing the role of the environment • This is called “artificial selection” Example of artificial selection in plants: five vegetables derived from wild mustard

44. Artificial Selection in Animals: Dog Breeding German shepherd Yorkshire terrier English springerspaniel Mini-dachshund Golden retriever Hundreds tothousands of yearsof breeding(artificial selection) Ancestral dog

45. The evolution of insecticide resistance is an example of natural selection in action Chromosome with geneconferring resistanceto insecticide Additionalapplications of thesame insecticide willbe less effective, andthe frequency ofresistant insects inthe populationwill grow Insecticideapplication Survivor

46. Extinction • no longer in existence; "the extinction of a species"

47. If a species does not include traits that enable it to survive in its environment or to survive changes in the environment, then the species may become extinct.

48. Individuals die, a species becomes extinct.

49. Individuals of a population exhibit a range of variations in a trait as a result of the variations in their genetic codes.