Interest Groups

1. Interest Groups • Def’n: A private organization that tries to persuade elected officials to respond to the shared attitudes of its members • Examples: AIPAC, American Cancer Society, PUSH • Considered dangerous by the Founders (Madison, Federalist 10 and 51) • Help to stimulate interest in public affairs, represent shared attitudes, and often provide technical, detailed information to legislators (frequently, lobbyists will write bills)

2. Lobbying • Def’n: Those activities by which group pressures are brought to bear on legislators and the legislative process • About 20,000 lobby Congress • Very money-based • Lobbyists sometimes bring “grassroots” pressure, are rated on success • Regulation: Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act (1946) requires lobbyists to register with the clerk of the House and Secretary of the Senate • 1954: U.S. v. Harris: Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of the registration requirement, but only applied it to Congressional lobbying • 1995 Act: Still requires two reports/year, including client names, expenditures. Grassroots still exempted and no enforcement (although Justice department can investigate)

3. Reasons for Proliferation of Interest Groups in the U.S. • The more diversity in society, the greater the diversity of opinions and factions • Federalism multiplies the # of places that interest groups can gain access to the government • The weakness of political parties encourages interest groups to bypass the parties and go for the jugular—the individual legislators • Americans have a proclivity to join organizations

4. Differences Between Political Parties and Interest Groups • Parties nominate candidates • Interest groups are chiefly concerned with influencing policy, not winning elections • Case in point: PACs give to both runners in an election • Interest group focus tends to be tightly focused on a series of interrelated issues. • Interest groups can share members

5. Interest Group History • Nearly half started after 1970, but interest groups were around even at the time of the Revolution • 1830s-1840s: lots of religious groups • 1860s: Trade/craft unions • 1880s/90s: business unions • 1900-1920: biggest era; Chamber of Commerce, NAACP some of the headliners • 1960s: environmental, consumer, and political reform organizations

6. Reasons for the RISE in Interest Groups • Broad economic developments create new interests and redefine old ones; Farmers are a good example (need to market crops widely after 1900), so are Unions—don’t need them until mass production begins • Government policy: Veterans’ Affairs, professional societies spring up as government cedes its authority • Religion: Antislavery, temperance • College attendance expansion creates leaders • Growth of government since the 1930s opens more opportunities for influencing it

7. Criticisms of Interest Groups • Influence is disproportional (Gray Panthers) • Difficult to establish identity of those controlling/benefiting from a group (Women’s Alliance for Israel) • Usually, a small minority within the group makes policy • Litigation issues

8. Interest Group Litigation • Often used if an interest group fails in Congress or only gets a weak piece of legislation • Relies on activist judges • Major victories in 1950s: School desegregation, equal housing, labor market equality • Consumer groups have used suits against businesses and federal agencies as a means of enforcing consumer regulations • Lawyers file amicus curiae briefs: written arguments to a court in defense of 1 side of a case • Class-action lawsuits enable a group of similarly situated plaintiffs to compile grievances into 1 lawsuit (Paypal suit)

9. Types of Interest Groups • Public Interest Groups—seek to improve life for everyone by encouraging the government to adopt certain public policies that will benefit all. (many times try to help defenseless—mentally ill, children, animals, etc) • Institutional Interests—individuals or organizations representing other organizations (ex: GM). Concerned with bread and butter issues for clients (GM-CAFÉ standards) • Agricultural groups • Professional groups (AMA, ABA) • Labor Unions—organization of workers in the same industry (AFL-CIO, UAW) • Trade Associations (American Bankers Association) • Religious organizations (National Catholic Welfare Council, Christian Coalition)

10. Why Join? • Solidary incentives—sense of companionship (PTA, Rotary Clubs have much to do locally, also League of Women Voters, NAACP, American Legion) • Material Incentives—Money and services (Farm Bureau, AARP provide discounts for members) • Purposive Incentives—stated goals are appealing and serve a purpose. Members are passionate about goals, have a sense of civic duty, and the cost is low (NOW, NARAL) • Purposive groups are called ideological interest groups • Purposive groups that serve non-members are commonly called public interest lobbies. They engage in “research” and lobby. • Public interest lobbies do best when government is hostile (Environmental lobbies, Peace lobbies)

11. Social Movements • Def’n: A widely-shared demand for change in some aspect of the social or political order (Civil Rights, Feminism, can also be Conservative) • May be triggered by scandals, events (Exxon Valdez)

12. The Environmental Movement • Sierra Club formed 1890s • 1960s-1970s: beginning of modern movement • Earth Day #1: 1970 • Nixon created EPA • Smallest groups tend to be most liberal and activist (Earth Liberation Front)

13. The Feminist Movement • Began in Seneca Falls, 1848, other movements in 1890s, 1920s, 1960s. • 3 Types: • Solidary incentive based (MC women—League of Women voters): avoid partisanship, dividing members • Purposive incentives (NOW, NARAL): Takes strong positions on divisive issues • Issue-based • Example: WEAL (Women’s Equity Action League), which concentrates on filing gender-equity lawsuits) • Has spawned an Anti-Feminist movement

14. The Union Movement • Union membership fell after its peak in 1945 (36%)…by 1984, <19% Now: 15%. Why? • Economic paradigm shift • Disapproval of unions • Unions want union shop: employees must join the union that represent them when hired • Unions will persist because they can rely on incentives like the union shop and workers receive benefits from unions • Greater recruitment of white collar workers in recent years (esp. government employees) • 1947 Taft-Hartley Act allows states to pass “right to work laws” (outlaw union membership as a condition of employment) • Low wages in other countries has led to outsourcing—unions who demand too much pay the ultimate price—their workers’ jobs

15. Farmers’ Movement • Family farm has given way to massive agribusiness • 3% of Americans are farmers • Several broad-based agricultural groups • Peanut Growers’ Association, Dairy Farmers, etc. • Department of Agriculture is divided along commodity lines—how convenient for lobbyists!

16. Business Interests • 70% of all interest groups represent business • Generally unified in promoting greater profits; fragmented on specific policy choices • 2 umbrella organizations: • National Association of Manufacturers • Chamber of Commerce • Trade and product associations fight regulations that would reduce profits, fight for preferential tax treatment, and seek subsidies and government contracts • Foreign corporations/governments also lobby

17. Interest Group Procurement of Funding • Foundation grants • Federal grants (liberal get-out-the-vote programs are infamous for this) • DIRECT MAIL • Best example of direct mail: Common Cause • 2% of letters need to respond to direct mail • To encourage responses, mailers will put “teasers” on envelopes, arouse emotions by portraying the enemy, endorsements, personalize letters

18. The Bias Problem of Interest Groups • Interest groups represent upper-class bias • Well-offs are more likely to join • Interest groups supporting business and professions are better represented than groups supporting minorities, consumers, or the disadvantaged • Out of 7,000 groups, 50% are corporations • Farmers enjoy plenty of influence, can at least block bills they don’t like

19. Interest Group Activities • Provide Information—arm legislators with their version of “Facts” • Provide political cues—warn Congressmen about implications • Rate legislators • Entice Public support, commission public opinion polls • Lately, emphasis on grassroots support • Money and PACs also distributed, but this is probably one of the least-effective ways (historically this was not the case though) • Cause trouble (Greenpeace, KKK)—difficult for government to measure response

20. Public Support: Rise of “New politics” • Insider strategy used to be most common: Lobbyist-to-legislator • Outsider strategy (grassroots pressure) becoming increasingly common • Key targets: undecided legislator or bureaucrat • Some groups attack likely allies to embarrass them

21. Regulating Interest Groups • Complex reporting requirements • Tax code and campaign finance laws actually achieve most of the regulation • Serious lobbying causes a group to lose its tax-exempt status

22. Political Action Committees • 1973 Campaign finance law had 2 effects 1) limited individual contributions and 2) practically begged corporations, big labor to set up PACs • Not much evidence that money buys much in politics (can accept funding from whoever you choose, and in effect, still vote your conscience • Half of all PACs sponsored by corporations • Ideological PACs have increased at a higher rate than business or labor PACs, and have raised more money than both…1/3 liberal, 2/3 Conservative • Except for NRA, top 20 PACs were non-ideological • Democrats receive more PAC money, but no systematic evidence that “vote buying” has occurred • Republicans rely more on small contributions from more members

23. “The Revolving Door” • 1978 Ethics in Government Act (p. 247) regulates possible conflicts of interest between senior members of the Executive Branch. • Otherwise, one could go from government to business and be very influential with old government “buddies” • This activity may cause public interest to suffer

24. Goals of Interest Groups • Try to influence public opinion • Work to affect the outcome of elections • Lobby those who make public policy • Frequently they use propaganda—a technique of persuasion aimed at influencing individual or group behaviors

25. Propaganda Techniques • Plain folks • Bandwagon • Name-calling/Mud-slinging • Glittering Generalities (broad stmts.) • Transfer • Testimonial/Endorsement • Card-stacking (1 side of an issue only)

26. Chapter 11 Learning Objectives • After reading and reviewing the material in this chapter, the student should be able to do each of the following: • 1. Explain why the characteristics of United States society and government encourage a multiplicity of interest groups. • 2. Indicate the historical conditions under which interest groups are likely to form and specify the kinds of organizations Americans are most likely to join. • 3. Describe relations between leaders and rank-and-file members of groups, including why members’ priorities may not determine the leaders’ actions. • 4. Describe several methods that interest groups use to formulate and carry out their political objectives, especially the lobbying techniques used to gain public support. Explain why courts have become an important forum for public interest groups. • 5. List the laws regulating conflict of interest and describe the problems involved with revolving door government employment. Describe the balance between the First Amendment’s freedom of expression and the need to prevent corruption in the political system.