The Transformations of Scientific Fields: Physics, Chemistry 1900-1945

1. The Transformations of Scientific Fields: Physics, Chemistry1900-1945 Yves Gingras Canada Research Chair History and Sociology of Science CIRST-UQAM

2. Distinctions between fields by journal title

3. Papers and References in Selected Source journals (1900-1944)

4. Growth in number of researchers

5. Growth in the number of papers

6. Authors’ “productivity”

7. Collaborative research

8. Proportion of papers by country (journal publisher) Note: “other” counties include Sweden, the Netherlands, the USSR and Switzerland

9. Interdisciplinarity(defined by the journals where scientists publish) Top 10 interdisciplinary authors (1900-1945) Chemistry: 54,000 authors Chemistry/Maths: 130 Maths: 2700 authors Chemistry/Physics: 2700 Physics: 17,000 authors All 3 disciplines: 20 Maths/Physics: 280

10. Country of origin of cited publication

11. Citations in chemistry journals

12. Citations in Physics Journals

13. Citations in Mathematics Journals

14. Impact of disciplines on one another

15. Citation statistics by country (1900-1944) Cited Citing Cited Citing Cited Citing

16. Citation statistics by discipline (1900-1944) Cited Citing

17. Gauging the country of publication of cited articles (*) France is included in this category, since the database poorly reflects the French journals in Chemistry and Physics Based on a semi-random sample of 300 physicists and 500 chemists from each country(**) , we can get an alternative idea of how the cited articles are distributed: (**) There is insufficient data for the case of mathematicians

18. Co-citation network of physicists, 1900-1904 (More than 8 co-citations).

19. Physics (1905-1911) • Co-citation network of top 50 most cited authors • Note two groups which emerge Node sizes reflect number of citations, visible ties for 11 co-citations or more

20. Multi-dimensional scaling and agglomerative clustering Ionization, atom Electron theory • MDS provides a map based on the distances “dissimilarities” between citation patterns of the authors (top 50 most cited authors in physics, 1905-1911) • AHC then allows us to identify cluster of “similar” authors • In this case, it identifies two primary, distinct clusters, which are the same as those identified using the networks Group 2 spectroscopy Chemical physics

21. Word frequency in titles of citing papers Group 1: Special relativity and the photoelectric effect (Einstein, Abraham, Lorentz, Drude, Planck) Group2: Ionization of gases, atomic model, emission spectra … (Thomson, Stark, Wien, Riecke, Lenard, Warburg, Kayser)

22. Co-citation network of physicists, 1912-1918 (More than 10 co-citations).

23. Co-citation network of physicists, 1925-1930 (More than 16 co-citations)

24. Co-citation network of physicists, 1937-1944 (More than 21 co-citations)

25. Centrality Rankings 5-years periods

26. Co-citation network of authors in Mathematics Journals (1900-1911)

27. Why We Cannot Predict Nobel Prizes... Yves Gingras and Matthew Wallace CIRST-UQAM

28. Nobel prize winners and nominees Number of physics nominees (1901-44): 813 Number of physics winners (1901-44): 47 Number of chemistry nominees (1901-44): 756 Number of chemistry winners (1901-44): 43

29. Evolving profile of prize winners (n=43) (n=46) (n=71) (n=47) (n=42) (n=89)

30. Probability distribution of rankings 3 years before and after the prize (n=172) (n=169) (n=166) (n=167) Note that, in all cases, the winners’ centrality provides a slightly better indicator (for the highest ranks)

31. How does the distribution of winners’ rankings evolve? (Part I: Physics)

32. How does the distribution of winners’ rankings evolve? (Part II: Chemistry)