The leader (trait, style, behavior, vision, charisma)

1. 1 The leader (trait, style, behavior, vision, charisma) The task (from holistic to reductionism, needing discretion or direction) The led (follower) (motivations, readiness, attitudes) The organization (structural, political, moral purpose)

2. Contingency Theory of Leadership • Contingency theory of leadership assumes that there is no one best way to lead. Effective leadership depends on the leader’s and follower’s characteristics as well as other factors in the leadership situation.

3. Central Features of the Contingency Theory of Leadership • Best way: there is no one best way to lead. • Leadership style: Different leadership styles are appropriate for different situations. • Middle ground: The contingency theory stresses the views that (a) there is some middle ground between the existence of universal principles of leadership that fit all situations and (b) each situation is unique and therefore must be studied and treated as unique.

4. Central Features of the Contingency Theory of Leadership (Cont.) • Focus: The contingency theories of leadership we studied focus on three variables: (a) leader’s style; (b) follower’s motivation and skill; and (c) the nature of the task. • Adaptability of leadership style: For an individual leader, this theory assumes that leadership is changeable and should be variable for different situations.

5. Tannenbaum-Schmidt’s Continuum of Leader Behavior (Democratic) (Authoritarian)] Relationships Oriented Task Oriented Source of Authority Area of Freedom for Subordinates Leader permits subordinates to function within limits defined by superior Leader presents problem, gets suggestions, and makes decision Leader presents idea and invites questions Leader makes decision and announce it Leader defines limits; asks group to make decision Leader presents tentative decision subject to change Leader “sells” decision

6. The Leadership Grid High 1,9 9,9 Country Club Management Team Management 8 Thoughtful attention to the needs Work accomplishment is from of the people for satisfying committed people; 7 relationships leads to a interdependence through a comfortable, friendly organization “common stake” in organization 6 atmosphere and work tempo purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect Middle-of-the-road Management 5 5,5 Adequate organization performance is possible through 4 balancing the necessity to get work out while maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level. 3 Impoverished Management Authority-Compliance Management Exertion of minimum effort to get required Efficiency in operations results from arranging 2 work done is appropriate to sustain conditions of work in such a way that human organization membership. elements interfere to a minimum degree 1 1,1 9,1 Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Low Concern for Results High Concern for People

7. Fiedler’s Leadership Contingency Model Task-oriented style Relationships-oriented Task-oriented style considerate style Favorable leadership situation Situation intermediate in favorable lenses for leader Unfavorable leadership situation

8. Fiedler’s Leadership Contingency Model (Cont.) Leader’s Motivational Situational Favorableness Outcome System Major variables 1. Leader-Member In Fiedler’s Relationships Contingency Leadership Style 2. Task Structure Effectiveness Theory 3. Leader’s Position Power

9. Fiedler’s Leadership Contingency Model(Cont.)Synthesis of the Fiedler Contingency Model Performance Task-oriented Good Relationship-oriented Poor Favorable Moderate Unfavorable Category I II III IV V VI VII VIII Leader- member Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor relations Task structure High High Low Low High High Low Low Position power Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Source: Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behavior, 6th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Pre- Tice Hall, 1993), P. 375.

10. Vroom-Yetten’s Contingency ModelFigure 5-5 Schematic representation of variables used in leadership researchReprinted from Leadership and Decision-Making by Victor H. Vroom and Philip W. Yetton by permission of the University of Pittsburgh Press. 1973 by University of Pittsburgh Press Situational variables (1) Organizational (4) effectiveness Leader behavior(3) Personal attributes(2) Situational variables(1a) Is there a Do I have Is the Is acceptance Do subordinates Is conflict quality re- sufficient problem of decision share the organ- among subor- quirement such information structured? by subordinates izational goal dinates likely that one solu- to make a critical to to be obtained in preferred tion is likely high quality effective im- in solving this solutions? to be more decision? plementation? problem? rational than another? A B C D E F

11. House-Mitchell’s Path-Goal Theory Causal Variables Moderator Variables Outcome Variables Leader BehaviorSubordinate Characteristics Satisfaction Directive Ability Motivation supportive Locus of Control Effort participative Needs and Motives Performance Relationship of Achievement-Oriented Environmental Forces Variables in the The task Path-Goal Theory Work Group Authority System

12. House-Mitchell’s Path-Goal TheoryFigure 2.4 House’s Path-Goal Theory Situations Leadership Leadership style Actions Ambiguous Directive Guidance Roles Procedures Stressful Welfare, Boring Tasks Supportive Supportive Climate Leaders Goal Accomplishment Competent Achievement Challenging Subordinates Oriented Goals and Standards Unstructured Participation Tasks Participative in Decision Making Path Goal

13. Blanchard and Hersey’s Theory of Situational Leadership Task Behavior---The extent to which the leader engages in defining roles is telling what, how, when, where, and if more than one person who is to do what in: • Goal-setting • Organizing • Establishing time lines • Directing • Controlling Relationship Behavior—The extent to which a leader engages in two-way (multi-way) communication, listening, facilitating behaviors, and providing socioemotional support • Giving support • Communicating • Facilitating interactions • Active listening • Providing feedback

14. Blanchard and Hersey’s Theory of Situational Leadership (Cont.) Decision Styles • Leader-made decision • Leader-made decision with Dialogue and/or Explanation • Leader/follower made decision or follower-made decision with encouragement from leader • Follower-made decision

15. Blanchard and Hersey’s Theory of Situational Leadership (Cont.) Leadership Behavior S3(Participation)S2(Selling) (High) Share ideas and facilitate Explain decision and in decision making provide opportunity for clarification High relationship High Task Low task High Relationship Low relationship High task low task Low relationship S4 (Delegating) S1(Telling) Turn over responsibility Provide specific for decisions and instructions and closely (Low) implementation supervise performance (Low) Task Behavior (High) (Directive Behavior) Relationship Behavior (Supportive Behavior)

16. Blanchard and Hersey’s Theory of Situational Leadership (Cont.) Ability: has the necessary knowledge, experience, and skill Willingness: has the necessary confidence, commitment, motivation Follower Readiness High Moderate Low R4 R3 R2 R1 Able and Able but Unable but Unable and Willing Unwilling Willing Unwilling or Confident or Insecure or Confident or Insecure Follower Directed Leader Directed When a leader behavior is used appropriately with its corresponding level of readiness, it is termed a High Probability Match. The following are descriptors that can be useful when using situational leadership for specific applications. S1 S2 S3 S4 Telling Selling Participating Delegating Guiding Explaining Encouraging Observing Directing Clarifying Collaborating Monitoring Establishing Persuading Committing Fulfilling

17. Table 2.3Contingency and Situational Theories and Models Theories Situational Variables Leadership Styles Fiedler’s Contingency Theory The Quality of leader-subordinates relations Task-oriented The leader’s position power Relationship-oriented The degree of task structure House’s Path-Goal Theory The subordinates Directive, Supportive The environment Participative, Achievement-oriented Hersey and Blanchard’s Subordinated maturity Telling, Sharing, Participating, Situational Leadership Delegating Theory Blake and Mouton’s All situations Five styles Leadership Grid Vroom and Yetton’s Decision quality importance AI (you solve the problem) Decision Model Leaders’ possession of relevant information AII (obtain info, then solve the prob.) Degree of structure contained in problem CI (share with individual followers, obtain Importance of subordinates’ acceptance of info, you decide) the decision Probability that subordinates will accept the CII (share with followers as a group, leader’s decision obtain collective info, you decide) The importance of shared purpose and goals GII (share the problems with followers as a The amount of conflict among subordinates group, decide together)

18. An overview of research • Ultimately, all studies which inquire into the relationship between leadership effectiveness, on one hand, and other factors, on the other, belong to the category of contingency theory of leadership. • Quantitative methods are used in this line of research. • This line of research will continue. What we need is a more comprehensive model to synthesize the research.

19. Questions for discussion • To what extent do you identify with the contingency of leadership? Why? • What is the implication for leadership if we view from the contingency perspective? • In your judgment, what are the strengths and limitations of the contingency theory of leadership?

20. Contributions of the Contingency Theory of Leadership • It moves beyond the assumption of “the best way to lead” and indicates that the effectiveness of leadership is the match between leader’s style and situational factors. It is an optimistic approach. • It provides a useful framework to synthesize the research on leadership.

21. Criticism of Blanchard and Hersey’s Situational Model (Bolman & Deal, 1991, pp. 419-420) • It fails to distinguish between support for a person and support for specific actions. (Does it mean that When children are unmotivated and unskilled, parents and teachers should provide high discretion and low support until they shape up?) • It oversimplifies the options available to leaders and the range of situations that leaders encounter. • It also neglects the Pygmalion effect (the self- fulfilling prophecy). • It makes an illusory promise to make leaders’ lives less confusing and perplexing, and has come to become a secular religion in leadership theory.

22. A Joke: Do we use the model? • A major corporation was developing a new management training program for a group of some 2,000 technical managers. A task force with representatives from two divisions in the company came together to decide what should be taught. The representatives from division A had participated in Managerial Grid seminars. They know in their hearts that the grid was the one best way and that it should be the foundation of the seminar. The managers in division B had attended situational management seminars, and their faith in the situational model was equally unshakable.

23. A Joke: Do we use the model? (cont.) • Initially, the two sides engaged in polite talk and rational argument. When that failed, the conversation gradually became more heated. Eventually, the group found itself hopelessly deadlocked. An outside consultant came in to mediate the dispute. She listened while the representatives from each division reviewed the conversation. The consultant then said to the group, “I’m impressed by the passion on both sides. I’m curious about one thing. If you all believe so deeply in these models and if it makes a difference which models someone learns, why can’t I see any difference in the behavior of the two groups?” Stunned silence fell over the room. Finally one member said, “You know, I think he’s right. We don’t use the damn models, we just preach them.” That was the end of the impasse.