General Biology Lab Exam1 Review

1. General Biology Lab Exam1 Review Covering Labs 1-5 10-15 questions from each lab

2. Scientific Method • There is a systematic approach to science, a series of steps that must be followed by all scientists known as the scientific method. • The basic steps are: • 1. Observation of a problem • 2. hypothesis formation- possible explanations • 3. Experimentation- testing the question repeatedly • 4. Conclusion

3. Lab 1 • Null Hypothesis- is the hypothesis of “no difference”, it is explaining what is occurring in a properly designed controlled experiment where nothing has been manipulated so the conditions remain constant. • Ex. There would be no difference or no statistically significant difference in the number of males and females being born in the U.S. this year. • Since hypotheses are always written in pairs and in formal sentences or statements, we must also have an Alternate hypothesis to explain the experimental groups where variables are being applied and manipulated. • Ex. Alternate hyp.: There is a difference in the number of males and females born in the U.S. this year.

4. Control group- the group that is left unchanged or un-manipulated • Variable group- the experimental groups in which something (a factor) is manipulated and changed that might influence the outcome of the experiment

5. Ph- the measure of acidic and alkaline (how basic) a solution is. • Ph scale ranges from 0-14, with 7 being neutral.

6. Chi-Square Statistic Observed Expected O E O-E O-E2 O-E2/E Section 1_____________________________________________ Section 2_____________________________________________ Section 3_____________________________________________ Section 4_____________________________________________ * Total ______ Χ2 = _______ Add up the last column * You must calculate a grand total of the observed values to find your Expected. Note E- expected is the average since the null hypothesis stated that all the numbers would be relatively the same.

7. Lab #1 Scientific Method • To determine if you are going to accept or reject your Null hypothesis you must read a Chi-Square table to determine if the differences you found between your observed values and your expected values are far enough apart to be considered different and not the same or if they are within the accepted range to be considered not significantly different. • Remember, your Expected values in the second column is the average so how far did the Observed values differ from the Expected? The larger the difference, the higher your chance of rejecting the null hypothesis and accepting the alternate hypothesis stating that there was a difference and that one of the variables had an effect.

8. Next, you must locate the column or probability level (p value) on the Chi-Square table that you are going to use that will correspond to the row you just found using the df. Most scientists use P=0.05 with an acceptable rate of error being 5% or less. • If you then read the table using the appropriate df value and p value you will find the Critical Value or the C.V. which you can then use to compare with your calculated Chi-Square value.   • To use the Chi-Square table you must first locate the the row across the table that you are going to use. You do so by finding the degrees of freedom or df. This is always one less than the number of groups or categories tested. Df=n-1

9. Lab #1 Scientific Method Chi Square Table

10. Lab #2 Microscopes • Know the labeled parts of the microscope and their basic functions. (All bold print terms in Lab #2) • Microscope Diagram

11. Lab #2 • Be able to calculate the total magnification if asked for any of the objectives. • It is the ocular/eyepiece magnification of 10x multiplied by the individual lens/objective magnifications 4x, 10x, 40x, 100x.

12. Lab #2 • Be able to calculate the size of a given microscope’s field of view- is the amount of the object that you see • Ex. How many lines do you see in this space? I I I I 4 lines or 4mm • How many cells could fit in the space occupied by those four lines? About 3 cells?

13. Lab #2 • Now that you have measured the field of view. Review page 6 of Lab #2 for the measurements you found in class. • 4x scanning 4-5 mm • 10x low power 1.5-2 mm • 40x high power 0.5 mm • Now, given these field of view diameters be able to calculate the size of a cell. • Use the formula diameter field of view • number of cells • So if using low power 10x to view the 3 cells we saw earlier how would you calculate their size? 2mm/3 cells=

14. What happens to the field of view (the amount of the object seen) as you increase in magnification? Yes, the object gets larger as magnification increases but the field of view or the actual overall amount of the object you see actually gets smaller. In class, you could not make out the letter “e” as you went up in magnification. • What does the term parfocal mean? It means once you get an object in focus on scanning and/or low power it remains pretty much in focus as you move up to the higher powers with very little adjustment. Even focus at all magnifications.

15. Lab #2 • State the two types of tissue we looked at. • Human cheek epithelium- the tissue that lines the body cavity, inside the mouth, nose, esophagus, stomach, intestines. • Onion and leaf epidermis- the tissue found covering the outer surface of plant leaves. Your epidermis is your skin.

16. Lab #2 • Be able to list some differences between plant and animal cells. • Animals- rounder, more irregular shaped, surrounded only by a thin plasma/cell membrane, often scattered in arrangement • Plants- more rectangular, elongated, more regular often appearing in rows and columns. Having a thicker outer boundary composed of Both a cell wall and a plasma/cell membrane.

17. Lab #2 • Human Cheek epithelium- Be able to recognize the cells and their structures- the nucleus, cell/plasma membrane, and cytoplasm.

18. Lab #2 • Be able to recognize a typical plant cell, such as Anacharis. (Elodea). • Be able to identify the cell wall,(Note: the cell/plasma membrane is located to the inside of the cell wall) the chloroplasts, cytoplasm, and central vacuole

19. Lab #2 • Recognize the onion epidermis and the cell structures: nucleus, cytoplasm, cell wall.

20. Lab #2 • What are some organelles that plants have that animal cells do not? Chloroplasts and central vacuoles • Animal/Cheek Cells also lack a cell wall. • Plant cells have BOTH a cell wall and a cell/plasma membrane

21. Lab #3 Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi • Kingdom Monera was subdivided into two new kingdoms: Kingdom Archebacteria and K. Eubacteria. • What is the major differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells? Prokaryotes lack a true membrane bound nucleus and membrane bound organelles. • Bacteria are prokaryotes. • What are some ways to identify bacteria? • -shape- cocci (round), bacilli (rod), spirilla (spiral) • Arrangement – staph (cluster), strep (chain)

22. Lab #3 Eubacteria • Staphylococci

23. Lab #3 Eubacteria • Streptobacillus Arrangement

24. Lab #3 Eubacteria • Spirilla

25. Lab # 3 Protista • Unicellular- single celled • Eukaryotes- have true nucleus and membrane bound organelles • Two types: heterotrophic(eat others), animal-like members are called the protozoans- the first animals • Plant-like members of this Kingdom that are autotrophic (make their own food by photosynthesis) are algae.

26. Lab # 3 Protista • Amoeba (notice you must either write this genus name in italics or capitalize and underline it)

27. Lab # 3 Protista • Paramecium- moves using its cillia

28. Lab # 3 Protista • Euglena- swims using its flagella. • Has both plant and animal-like characteristics since it is both heterotrophic (eats) and autotrophic (makes its own food) using chloroplasts to photosynthesize

29. Lab #3 Protista • Spirogyra- algae

30. Lab # 3 Fungi • Kindgom Fungi- mostly multicellular eukaryotes- reproduce both sexually and asexually by spores • A unicellular example is Saccharomyces , commonly known as Yeast- Note the reproductive budding.

31. Lab # 3 Fungi • Penicillium- is the genus of the mold that produces the antibiotic medicine Penicillin. • Note the hyphal filaments and the round spores.

32. Lab #3 Fungi • Common mushrooms

33. Lab #3 Fungi • Morels- sponge mushroom

34. Lab #3 Fungi • Mushrooms • Note: cap with gills underneath that produce the spores, all held up by the stalk.

35. Lab #3 Fungi • Shelf or Bracket Fungi- grow off of dead and decaying matter like old wood. They are decomposers helping to break down and recycle nutrients back into the soil.

36. Lab #3 Lichens • Lichens are a symbiotic organism made of two distinct organisms living and sharing together. They are made of an algae and a fungus. The algae can photosynthesize and make food for the fungus. While, the fungus can provide a home and nutrients and water for the algae in return. • They are often an indicator of air pollution and will not grow in polluted environments.

37. Lab #4 Plant Kingdom • Who are the proposed ancestors to the Plants? The algae (Kingdom Protista) • There are 4 major groups of plants we looked at in this lab. You must know examples, structures and characteristics for each group.

38. Lab #4 Plant Kingdom • Bryophytes- mosses- capsule containing spores, leafy base and stalk.

39. Lab #4 Plant Kingdom • Bryophytes- lack vascular tissue so they are small, low growing plants that live in moist environments. • They require water for reproduction since they have motile sperm with flagella that swim over to the female structure for fertilization. • They produce spores for reproduction (a primitive trait shared with the Fungi and Eubacteria)

40. Lab #3 Plant Kingdom • Bryophytes- Liverworts • Female gametophore (archegonium)- produces the eggs • Male gametophore- (antheridium) produces the sperm • Also has an asexual means of reproduction using gemmae cups that appear on the surface of the ribbon-like body or thallus

41. Liverwort male and female

42. Liverwort with gemmae cups

43. Lab #4 Plant Kingdom • Ferns- have vascular tissue: xylem- transports water and phloem- transports food/sugar • Still require water for reproduction • Still produce the more primitive spores inside the sori

44. Lab #4 Plant Kingdom • Gymnosperms- conifers – cone bearing evergreen plants that produce naked, uncovered, unprotected seeds • Pines, firs, cedars, junipers, etc…

45. Gymnosperms • Male cones- produce pollen which contains the sperm that will be carried by the wind to the female cones

46. Gymnosperms • Female cones after fertilization by the male pollen/sperm develop the seeds or eggs. The cones mature and open up releasing the seeds to be dispersed by the wind.

47. Angiosperms • Angiosperms are the flowering plants- they produce covered or protected seeds inside of a fruit.

48. Angiopserms • Male Flower parts • Female flower parts

49. Angiosperms • Know the terms: radial (Like a wheel or pie- cutting into more than one equal piece) vs. bilateral symmetry- having only two equal sides when cut down the middle like mirror images. • Incomplete vs. Complete flower- having all flower parts or missing one or more. • Composite flower- made of more than one type of flower. Ex. Sunflowers, Daisy Mum- with ray and disk flowers • Inflorescence- more than one flower grouped at the end of a single flower stem. • Fruit- a mature ripened ovary containing fertilized seeds. • Pollination- the transfer of the male pollen (sperm) to the female stigma for fertilization.

50. Lab #4 Plant Kingdom • Monocot leaves- flower parts in 3’s and 6’s, parallel leaf veins