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From Abd al-Malik to Hisham. Islamic History: the First 150 Years. Session Plan. Unity Restored Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz Hisham and the End of Expansion Rumblings of Thunder Readings. Section I: Unity Restored. Unity Lost.
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From Abd al-Malik to Hisham Islamic History: the First 150 Years
Session Plan • Unity Restored • Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz • Hisham and the End of Expansion • Rumblings of Thunder • Readings
Unity Lost • During the first 3 sessions, we looked at the evolution of the early Muslim community • We saw that the central question facing the Muslim state was that of leadership • In sessions one and two we looked at the differing responses to these questions under Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali • We then looked at the break down of the patriarchal caliphate • The first fitna: Ali & Mu’awiya • The second fitna: Umayyads, Husayn and Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr • We also saw the emergence of a fourth trend, if you will, that of the ‘neutrals’
Unity Restored • As we saw last week, with the death of Ibn al-Zubayr, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan became the undisputed caliph • The reign of Abd al-Malik is an important one for a number of reasons • Firstly, it is with him that the Umayyad empire takes its concrete form • Secondly, his twenty year rule allowed relative peace and stability to return • Thirdly, a number of important religious developments occur in his reign • Fourthly, his reign (and that of his son Hisham) mark the effective zenith of the Umayyad empire
Unity Restored • However, despite his importance, we will not be exploring his reign in fine detail • I intend to explore a number of key elements, which, it is hoped, will paint a representative picture • These include: • Relationships with Religious Notables • Iraq • Jerusalem • Further reading: C.F. Robinson Abd al-Malik
Relationships • Abd al-Malik’s relations with the religious elite are marked by ambiguity • Unlike earlier caliphs, Abd al-Malik had grown up in Islam • As a young man, he had shown a particular interest in the study of Prophetic Traditions and in the biography of Muhammad • Some reports also state that he had memorised the entire Quran (hafiz al-Quran) • Tradition, however, relates that his accession brought about a change • He is said to have subordinated everything to policy • That is, he seems to have taken the running of the empire seriously • Raja ibn Haiwa al-Kindi, an early religious figure, seems to have been influential under him • Moreover, he also patronised ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, the early hadith scholar and historian (whom we met last week) • Despite this, it is from his reign onwards that we begin to see learned Muslims effectively staying away from involvement with the government • In other words, it was considered somewhat disreputable for a religious scholar to be associated with the state • This may well be due to the increasingly negative view of the Umayyad dynasty
Iraq • In Iraq, Abd al-Malik’s drive for stability and order effectively meant the repression of rebellious elements • His governor, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, was infamous for his use of naked force • His command began with what Hodgson describes as ‘terrifying violence’ in which 1000s are said to have died • A major Kharijite revolt was also defeated • However, his harsh measures eventually prompted sections of the army itself to revolt under ibn al-Ash’ath • Al-Hajjaj also built a number of canals and irrigation channels
Other Measures • Abd al-Malik also reformed the coinage • The earlier method of using existing Byzantine and Sassanid coinage was replaced • A new Islamic coinage was introduced • They were of a standard weight and metal standard and helped stabilise the economy • They also carried ideological/religious messages • They were aniconic • Contained passages from the Quran and statements of Islamic belief • They were so successful that they quickly became the standard form of Muslim coinage
Mecca & Jerusalem • The Ka’ba at Mecca the central shrine of Islam • Islamic tradition describes the sanctuary as being built by Abraham and Ishmael • The Arab tribes who inherit the site eventually fall into paganism • Key idols of Mecca: • Manat: literally meaning ‘fate’, this ‘deity’ was widely worshipped throughout Arabia • Al-`Uzza: literally meaning ‘the mighty one’ (feminine) • Al-Lat: ‘the Goddess’ • These three goddesses are the ‘deities’ named in the Satanic Verses story • Believed to have power of intercession with Allah
Mecca & Jerusalem • Islamic tradition holds that Allah was recognised by the pagan Arabs as a ‘High God’ • Hubal: an imported ‘deity’ originally from Palestine • The tradition holds that on the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad cleared the Kaba of some 360 idols • A suspiciously round number • Not impossible of course, but seems to represent a ‘god’ for every day of the solar year • The Meccan shrine, according to the tradition, was thus the ritual centre of Islam from the beginning
Mecca & Jerusalem • Indeed there are numerous references to the ‘House’ in the Quran • Some modern authorities, however, understand this development differently • Crone and Cook – Hagarism • Within the Islamic framework, Mecca holds a particular importance • During the early period of Islam (and indeed the whole of Islamic history) control of the Meccan shrine was politically important • Within our context, Abdullah in al-Zubayr’s control of Mecca enabled him to claim a large degree of legitimacy • That is, God Himself, the ‘Lord of this House’ (surah quraysh), had given control of his sanctuary to ibn al-Zubayr • Important propaganda value
Mecca and Jerusalem • Once in control of Umayyad Syria, Abd al-Malik began to develop the Temple Mount area of Jerusalem • The Temple Mount had been empty for quite some time • Abd al-Malik built the Dome of the Rock • This is a deeply fascinating building • It is not a traditional mosque: it’s a hexagonal building built around a central mount • This is believed to be the spot where Muhammad ascended to heaven • Al-Zuhri cites a report in which Abd al-Malik allegedly built the Dome of the Rock to compete with Mecca (then under Zubayrid control) • A somewhat defaced inscription on the Dome of the Rock reads: ‘The servant of God, Abd al-Malik, the Amir al-Mumineen, built this Qubba in the year 72 hijri’ • Al-Ma’mun (an Abbasid Caliph) had Abd al-Malik’s name removed and his own put in its place
Mecca and Jerusalem • The most interesting question regarding the Dome of the Rock is why? • Why build such an unusual sanctuary there, at this time? • The Dome is also adorned with Quranic calligraphy and is one of the earliest uses of the Quran on architecture • The Quranic texts used on the Dome are also interesting and probably point towards Abd al-Malik’s actual intentions • They quote passages from the Quran which refer to the Islamic understanding of Jesus Christ • Specifically, they refer to Islam’s understanding that he was not divine, but a human prophet • In other words, the Dome is thus part of a wider theological debate • It was also probably meant to physically assert Islam’s religious, theological and political superiority over both Judaism and Christianity
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz • Abd al-Malik had a large family and because of this four of his children became caliphs after him • However, the most famous ruler after him was not actually his son, but his nephew Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz • Umar is an interesting character and is the only Umayyad caliph to be viewed positively by later Muslim tradition • Indeed, some even felt that he was the fifth ‘rightly guided caliph’ after Muhammad • Although there are a number of reasons for this, perhaps the most significant of them is the perception of Umar’s motives • In other words, Umar is perceived to ruled through adherence to Islamic norms • Or, again, he ruled in accordance with what our sources felt were Islamic norms • In assessing Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, we must therefore take our sources’ biases into account • Nevertheless, it does seem that Umar was personally committed to his religious principles and seems to have attempted to rule by them
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz • Wellhausen, an early 20th century writer, has this to say: ‘Sulaiman was a luxurious profligate, Umar almost an ascetic; to the former the ruling power offered unlimited means of enjoyment; upon the latter it imposed a a weight of responsibility. In everything he did judgement loomed before his eyes, and he was always afraid of coming up short of the requirements of God’ (p. 268) • Umar’s Policies… • Almost all outward expansion stopped and most advanced outposts withdrawn • However, the Narbonne region of southern France was fortified under Umar • Although he used existing men, Umar seems to have appointed provincial governors for their ability and honesty (Tab. 3. 1383) • Thus Abd al-Hamid ibn Abd al-Rahman of Umar I’s family became governor of Kufa • He also brought the emerging Islamic religious scholarly elite into the business of government • In a letter to his provincial governors, he is said to have named the pillars of government as: • The Wali (Executive Governor) • The Judge (or Qadi, i.e. someone learned in Islamic law) • The Tax Administrator • The Caliph
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz • He appointed the famous Hasan al-Basri Qadi (judge) of Basra • Hasan is an important early ascetic and ‘mystic’ • Umar also reformed the tax system • Although his changes were rather complex, in essence we can say that he attempted to make taxation conform to Islamic ideals • Thus the mawali were given automatic entitlement to their Quranically allotted privileges • Land use was also reformed: common land was to be used for the communities to which it was originally intended • The sources report that Umar was an eager ‘missionary’ • He is said to have invited the rulers of Sind (in modern Pakistan) and various Berber tribes (in Morocco and Algeria) to accept Islam • Umar also wrote to the Byzantine emperor Leo II, in an apparent attempt to convert him • He prohibited the cursing of Ali, which Mu’awiya had introduced • He is also said to have ordered the collation of Prophetic Traditions, in order to ensure their authenticity • This last measure presumably sprang from two motives… • A desire to preserve/record Muhammad’s words • A desire to preserve a key source of Islamic law (the Shariah)
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz • However, despite all of these energetic reforms, Umar’s reign was a short one • He died after a mere 2 years in office (715-717CE) • In some senses, this is another important factor in his enduring popularity • That is, had he ruled for longer, he may not have been able to maintain his momentum • Hisham, Umar’s effective (but not actual successor), undid all of these reforms and restored Umayyad dominance on its pre-existing lines • And, as we shall see, although he reigned for a long time in relative peace, his caliphate saw the beginnings of the end for the Umayyad dynasty
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik • As his name suggests, Hisham was a son of Abd al-Malik • He ruled the Muslim empire from 105-125AH (or 724-743CE) • His 20 year rule thus brought stability after another period of turmoil after Umar II’s death • Essential Readings for Hisham • K. Y. Blankinship The End of the Jihad State • J. Wellhausen The Arab Kingdom and its Fall
Internal Opposition • Kharijite groups, spread to North Africa • Shiite discontent continued to manifest itself • In 740CE, Zayd ibn Ali revolted at Kufa against Hisham • Zayd ibn Ali (Zayn al-Abidin) ibn Husayn ibn Ali • Brother of Muhammad ibn Ali al-Baqir • Despite popular support, the revolt was soon crushed • However, despite its failure, Zayd’s revolt was significant in a number of ways • Firstly, it underlines continuing opposition to Umayyad rule from the Alid family and its supporters • Secondly, Zayd became another martyr to the Shiite cause • Thirdly, his rising marks the emergence of a new trend in Shiite thought regarding the nature of the imamate (more on this in a moment) • Fourthly, the Abbasid revolution (which we will come to in the next session) styled itself as vengeance for Zayd (and all other Shiite martyrs)
Zayd’s Refrom Manifesto • Apply the Quran and Sunnah • Wage jihad against oppressors • Defend the weak • Provide for the deprived • Equally divide the income from Muslim property by right of conquest (fay’) among those deserving it • Satisfy complaints • Bring back those held in the field campaigning for more than one year • Support the Alids against those resisting or denying their rights
The Concept of Imamate in Early Shii Thought • As you might expect, during the century of Umayyad rule, the Shiite concept of Imamate underwent some development • Although charting the development in detail would take too long here, we can look at some key features • Those interested in this subject should consult… • S. H. Jafri The History and Early Development of Shia Islam • A. Lalani Early Shii Thought: the Teachings of Muhammad al-Baqir • M. Hodgson ‘How did the Shia become sectarian?’ (This is a journal article; I own a copy) • Ali as Imam and Amir al-Muminin • In other words, temporal and religious functions combined • The fact that his descendents did not hold power was problematic at first • However, probably first under Zayn al-Abidin, Shii thinkers began to separate these two aspect • That is, the authority of the imam did not depend on his holding power
The Concept of Imamate in Early Shii Thought • Muhammad al-Baqir and later his son, Ja’far al-Sadiq, began to articulate this idea clearly • Thus although they were not involved in politics they still seem to have understood themselves to be the rightful imams of the Muslim community • They put forward two main arguments • Firstly, after Hasan’s death, the imamate could only run through Husayn’s line • Secondly, an imam could only be appointed by the explicit designation (known as nass in Arabic) of the incumbent • Essentially, this stabilised the charismatic leadership of the Alid house • As we saw last week, moreover, there were some within the Shia milieu that believed the imam to be more than human (we will look more at this in the next session) • However, this was not the only viewpoint • Zayd (Muhammad’s brother) seems to have strongly disagreed with this idea • He argued, in common with al-Baqir, that an imam can only come from the house of Ali
The Concept of Imamate in Early Shii Thought • However, he did not restrict this to the line of Husayn • Rather, any suitably qualified Alid could be a potential imam • Two things were required to actualise this • Religious Knowledge • Public Declaration of Imamate • According to Zayd, the Imam had to arise ‘sword in hand’ • These differences eventually led to the development of two different schools of thought within Shia Islam • Those who followed Muhammad al-Baqir’s ideas became known as the Imami Shia • From the Imami school of thought later emerged the Twelver Shia of Iran, as well as the Ismaili (and thus Druze) Shia – i.e. those who follow the Aga Khan • Those who followed Zayd became known as Zaydi Shia • Because they did not accept ‘designation’ as such, there were many small groups of independent Zaydis • During the course of time, Zaydi Shiites established imamates in northern Persia (on the shores of the Caspian Sea) in the Daylam region and in Yemen
The Twelver Shia Line • Ali ibn Abi Talib • Hasan ibn Ali • Hussein ibn Ali • Ali ibn Hussein • Muhammad ibn Ali (known as al-Baqir, or ‘He who splits open [religious knowledge]’ and Zayd’s brother) • Ja’far ibn Muhammad (known as al-Sadiq, ‘the Truthful’) • Musa ibn Ja’far (al-Kazim) • Ali ibn Musa (al-Rida, or the ‘Chosen’) • Muhammad ibn Ali (al-Taqi, ‘the Godfearing’) • Ali ibn Muhammad (al-Naqi) • Hasan ibn Ali (al-`Askari) • Muhammad ibn Ali (al-Mahdi, the ‘Rightly Guided One’ or the Messiah)
External Opposition • Hisham’s rule was also challenged by a number of external foes • As we saw, Hisham reversed Umar’s policy of disengagement and initiated an aggressive expansionist policy • At first this appeared to be largely successful • However, the strains caused by this expansionism soon began to show • Muslim armies met with a number of serious defeats in many of its main theatres of war • Moreover, new fronts also opened up • The effect of all of this was to place a serious burden on the Muslim empire’s available manpower • A brief glance at a map will help make this clear…
External Opposition • Anatolia: war against the Byzantines continued throughout this period • Caucasus: Muslim forces suffer a number of serious setbacks against the Khazar confederation (in alliance with Byzantium) • Khazar forces manage to raid Armenia and threaten Mosul (northern Iraq) • Central Asia: the Turgesh confederation inflicted a number of defeats on Muslim forces • Sijistan: a number of expensive campaigns against the Zunbil • Sind/India: Muslim forces faced a number of resurgent Hindu kingdoms and were effectively driven back • Khurasan: at the Battle of the Defile, Muslim casualties are reported to have been approximately 20,000 dead • Mediterranean Area: Sicily and Sardinia attacked • Spanish Frontier: Frankish attacks drive Muslims out of southern France (Narbonne)
External Opposition • These defeats swallowed up much of the available manpower • Moreover, they also placed a great strain on the Syrian forces • Because these were, in some senses, ‘crack’ troops they had been used to keep the peace in Iraq and other places • With these defeats, more Syrian contingents began to be sent to different frontiers • This weakened the internal hold of the Umayyad dynasty significantly • Indeed, this only exacerbated the problem as Syrian troops became too thinly spread to prevent further revolts • The Great Berber Revolt: 122-125AH (740-743CE) • Excessive taxation and the illegal removal of Muslim Berbers as slaves seem to have been the immediate causes • In any case, an enormous rebellion eventually proved successful and Umayyad control of the Maghreb region was lost
External Opposition • This also considerably weakened the government’s hold of Spain • However, a fugitive Umayyad eventually took control of the province in the aftermath of the Abbasid revolution • Hisham dies in 125AH (743CE) • Yazid III • His revolt soon crushed, but, his apparent programme is interesting • A self-conscious return to the past? • Main points include… • Not to build any buildings of brick or stone, nor to dig any new canals • Not to hoard wealth • Not to give wealth to wives or children • To transfer wealth to other provinces only after first is fully taken care of • Spend any surplus in nearest province
External Opposition • Not to keep troops in the field for more than 1 year • Not to lock out petitioners • To reduce non-Muslim taxation • To give all Muslim troops equal stipends • To acknowledge the right of Muslims to reproach the Caliph should he stray • In some senses, this is reminiscent of Zayd ibn Ali’s programme • And, is probably best seen as an attempt to address the perceived social ills of the day via a return to Islamic norms • As Blankinship says, ‘This program is redolent of irritation with the policies of Hisham…’ (p.227)
Rumblings of Thunder • As we have seen, by the time of Hisham’s death the Muslim empire had reached something of an impasse • It had suffered several important military defeats • Moreover, these defeats meant a significant drop in the level and amount of booty • In many ways, it was this drop in income which caused the most significant problems for the Umayyad regime • Large scale war booty had effectively masked the underlying difficulties of the period and with their removal, they began to surface • Firstly, Hisham’s death saw another return to civil war, as a number of factions fought for control • This resulted in the accession and death of a number of candidates • This led to military revolts and provincial insecurities, further exacerbating the economic situation
Rumblings of Thunder • Secondly, this period again saw the re-emergence of a number of Shia uprisings • However we will look more closely at that in the following session • Thirdly, this political instability was made worse by the continuing feud between the Quda’a and Qays tribal groupings • Fourthly, during Hisham’s reign, the scholarly class (ulama) had once again begun to withdraw from public office • This effectively removed an important support for the Umayyad regime • And, indeed, became the breeding ground for active opposition • There were, furthermore, a number of Kharijite revolts
Readings • Your reading packs contain a number of readings • P. Crone Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam • Oleg Grabar Ceremonial and Art at the Umayyad Court • Oleg Grabar The Formation of Islamic Art • Pre-Islamic Poetry (The Hanged Poems) • A short passage attributed to Hasan al-Basri
