Theories of Learning

1. Theories of Learning By Lora Plank

2. Learning Theories Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism Theorists Theorists Theorists Principles Principles Principles Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics Design Implications Design Implications Design Implications Example Example Example

3. Behaviorism Theorists • Albert Bandura • B. F. Skinner • Clark Hull • E. C. Tolman • Edwin Guthrie • Ivan Pavlov • John Watson

4. Albert Bandura • Social Learning Theory … People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those behaviors. • Claims that modeling can have as much impact as direct experience. • Modeling – individuals learn how to act by observing another. http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~lynda_abbott/Social.html, retrieved June 29, 2007. http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/comm/bandur-s.mhtml, retrieved June 29, 2007.

5. B. F. Skinner • Principle of reinforcement … the behavior of an organism can be shaped by reinforcing, or rewarding, the desired responses to the environment. • Proponent of operant conditioning • Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence of voluntary behavior. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 34. Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning, (retrieved June 29, 2007)

6. Clark Hull • Believed that internal stimuli also elicit responses and that observed behavior was a function of these internal stimuli as well as environment variables. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 34.

7. E. C. Tolman • Purposive behaviorist … Believed that behavior is guided by purpose and individuals selectively take in information from the environment and build cognitive maps as they learn. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 34.

8. Edwin R. Guthrie • Believed that stimuli which are acting at the time of a response tend on their reoccurrence to evoke that response. • One-trial learning • The last stimulus before a response occurs becomes associated with the response. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 34. Peterson, Heather, http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/guthrie.htm#Theory, retrieved June 29, 2007.

9. Ivan Pavlov • Classical conditioning … repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus resulting in the neutral stimulus eventually eliciting the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. • A light shone in one’s eyes causes a blink (unconditioned). Repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus like a chime with the unconditioned stimulus will result in blinking upon hearing the chime. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 35. Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16.

10. John Watson • Put emphasis on external behavior of people and their reactions in given situations. • Believed that virtually all human behavior could be explained as conditioning. • Believed that psychology should study observable behaviors, not internal processes Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American Educational Technology. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unllimited, p. 287. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Watson, (retrieved June 29, 2007)

11. Behaviorist Principles • Learning is demonstrated by changes in form or frequency of observable performance. • Learning is accomplished when a proper response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus. • Responses that are followed by reinforcement are more likely to recur. Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, p. 55.

12. Behaviorist Principles • The learner is a block box and nothing is known about what goes on inside. • The learner is reactive to environmental conditions. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 35. Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, p. 55

13. Positive reinforcement Premack principle Negative reinforcement Punishment Learned helplessness Extinction Response cost Timeout Shaping Chaining Fading Behaviorist Characteristics

14. Positive Reinforcement • The presentation of a reinforcer contingent upon a response that results in the strengthening of the response. • Primary reinforcers’ value is biologically determined, i.e. food • Conditioned reinforcers acquire value through association with a primary reinforcer, i.e. money • Example: Students who complete a pre-exam assessment and get at least a 90% score get 5 bonus points (conditioned reinforcer). Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 39.

15. Premack Principle • Making high-frequency behaviors contingent upon low-frequency behaviors in order to strengthen the low-frequency behavior. • Example: Using playing outside as a reward for eating all of your spinach. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 41.

16. Negative Reinforcement • Strengthens a response through the removal of an aversive stimulus contingent upon that response. • Students who score above 95% on all tests will not have to take the final exam. (This is similar to not having to take the GRE (aversive stimulus) by maintain a specific GPA (strengthens the response of getting good grades.) Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 41-42.

17. Punishment • Presentation of an aversive stimulus contingent upon a response that reduced the rate of that response. • The surgeon yelling at a student for selecting the wrong instrument. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 42 .

18. Learned Helplessness • Passive acceptance of events seemingly beyond one’s control. • A student repeatedly fails tests no matter now hard they study. Eventually, they stop studying because passing the test seems to be beyond their control. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 43.

19. Extinction • Previously existing contingencies of reinforcement are taken away, thereby causing a reduction in the frequency of a response. • A student repeatedly makes jokes during lecture. Everyone is annoyed but chuckles. Eventually, the chuckling stops and the student stops telling the jokes. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 43.

20. Response Cost • Removal of reinforcement contingent upon behavior. • Fine or loss of some previously earned reinforcer Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 44.

21. Timeout • Removing the learner, for a limited time, from the circumstances reinforcing the undesired behavior. • Common method of behavioral modification for children, generally 1 minute per year of age. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 45.

22. Shaping • Reinforcement of successive approximations to a goal behavior. • When students are learning to set up a surgical table, they receive praise after first preparing the drapes, then after preparing the sutures, then after preparing the instruments until they are finally able to set up the entire table. • Praise is a strong social reinforcer. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 45.

23. Chaining • Establishing complex behaviors made up of discrete, simpler behaviors already known to the learner. • When learning to prepare for a surgical procedure, each of the individual steps (opening supplies, washing the hands, gowning, preparing the table) has been learned through shaping and then each of these steps is chained together to complete the complex process of preparing for the procedure Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 49.

24. Fading • Fading out of discriminative cues used to initially establish a desired behavior. • The instructor coaches the students as to which instruments to place in which position on the Mayo stand. During each successive setup, the instructor gives fewer cues until the student is able to complete the setup independently. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and Bacon, p. 50.

25. Design Implications • Behaviorist strategies are best suited for well-structured problems. • Recalling facts • Defining and illustrating concepts • Applying explanations or association • Chaining Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, p. 55-56.

26. Design Implications • Emphasis is on sequencing, mastery of early steps before progressing to more complex levels. • Use of reinforcement (rewards, feedback) • Ensure a strong stimulus, response association (cues, practice) Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, p. 55-56.

27. Programmed Instruction • Leading a learner through a series of instructional steps to a desired level of performance. • A frame, or small unit of information is presented as a stimulus • The learner then makes a response by answering a question • He is given feedback and a correct response is reinforced • The cycle is repeated to present a complete program in a logical sequence of information Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16. Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American Educational Technology. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unllimited, p. 297.

28. Drill-and-Practice • The learner is led through series of practice exercises designed to increase fluency in a new skill. • Learner has previously received some instruction • Include feedback to correct and remediate errors • Example: Students use drill-and-practice when learning new medical terms. Heinich, Robert. (1999). Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning. Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall, p. 9.

29. Example From My Field A mastery learning approach is well-suited for instruction of surgical fundamentals required to prepare the operating room for a procedure. This is a well-structured problem. Well-structured problems are performed by recalling procedures and performing them exactly as taught. It is not necessary to understand why the procedure works. Well-structured problems are ideally suited to behaviorist strategies such as Bloom’s mastery learning approach. There are ten fundamental competencies that must be demonstrated before any student can participate in “real-world” patient care. These ten competencies are sequential, beginning with simpler skills and progressing to more complex skills. Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American Educational Technology. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unllimited, p. 289-290. Silber, K. (1998). Cognitive approach to training development. ETR&D, 46(4), p. 67. http://allen.warren.net/ml.htm, (retrieved June 29, 2007)

30. Example From My Field The first step is to specify and publish the particular knowledge or skills to be learned. For each competency students are first presented with clearly stated learning objectives from one or more of the three learning domains, cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Objectives are developed using Bloom’s taxonomic approach. Students are next presented with underlying theory related to the specific competency. An initial assessment of theoretical knowledge follows in the form of a written exam. This allows the instructor to determine what particular areas of instruction the student is having difficulty with.

31. Example From My Field Students are then assigned to specific lab groups to participate in relevant learning experiences which have been developed for each competency. Groups are based on similarly demonstrated strengths or weaknesses of the students assigned to the group. Additionally, self-paced learning modules may be assigned to groups weak in specific theoretical aspects of a competency. For example, students weak in the fundamentals of asepsis (as demonstrated by poor performance on the written assessment) may be assigned to watch videos or computer-based tutorials.

32. Example From My Field Each small group then works under the guidance of an instructor to learn to apply theory to simulated practice. The specific skill is demonstrated by the instructor so that the students may model her behavior. Students will use drill-and-practice to improve fluency in each skill. Using fading, in the early stages of learning, the instructor may give cues. As learning progresses, cues will become less frequent. It is important for students to receive prompt feedback regarding deficiencies so that corrective measures can be instituted and “bad behaviors” can be eliminated. Even those who demonstrate initial mastery must continue to practice (overlearning) so that behaviors become automatic. Through shaping the instructor will have reinforced successive approximations of the goal by giving praise as the student completes each successive step of the process. Ultimately, the student will master the complex behavior of preparing the entire room by chaining each of the simpler tasks involved.

33. Example From My Field Finally, criterion-referenced assessment measures performance in terms of the specifically stated learning objectives. Assessment of theoretical knowledge is through comprehensive written examination. Authentic assessment in a laboratory situation (students demonstrate all tasks expected in the surgical setting and are evaluated using a rubric) demonstrates application of theory to practice. Students who demonstrate mastery of fundamental skills are assigned to the clinical setting where ultimately, in order to graduate from the program, they will be expected to synthesize theory and practice in new, increasingly complex situations. Students who fail to demonstrate mastery of fundamental skills are reassigned in groups or worked with individually for remediation.

34. Cognitive Theorists • Charles Reigeluth • David Ausubel • David Merrill • Howard Gardner • Jerome Brunner • Robert M. Gagné

35. Charles Reigeluth • Elaboration theory … instruction should be organized in increasing order of complexity for optimal learning. • The simplest version of a procedural task is presented first • Subsequent lessons present additional versions until the full range of tasks are taught • In each lesson, the learner should be reminded of all versions taught so far (summary/synthesis). • Learner needs to develop a meaningful context into which subsequent ideas and skills can be assimilated. http://tip.psychology.org/reigelut.html , retrieved June 29, 2007.

36. David Ausubel • Made a significant contribution to the field of learning in the research and development of advance organizers. • Subsumption theory … new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis. http://tip.psychology.org/ausubel.html, retrieved June 29, 2007. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ausubel, retrieved June 29, 2007.

37. David Merrill • Component display theory … instruction is more effective if it contains all necessary primary and secondary presentation forms. • Learning is classified along two dimensions: content (facts, concepts, procedures, and principles) and performance (remembering, using, generalities). • Four primary presentation forms: rules, examples, recall and practice. • Secondary presentation forms include: prerequisites, objectives, helps, mnemonics, and feedback. http://tip.psychology.org/merrill.html , retrieved June 29, 2007.

38. Howard Gardner • Defined cognitive science as “a contemporary, empirically based effort to answer long-standing epistemologically questions – particularly those concerned with the nature of knowledge, its components, its sources, its development, and its deployment.” Bednar, A.K., Cunningham, D., Duffy, T.M., & Perry, J.D. (1991) Instructional Technology Past Present and Future (7th ed.). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc., p. 90.

39. Jerome Bruner • Maintains that people interpret the world in terms of its similarities and differences in which people form a hierarchical arrangement of related categories. • Ideas are based on categorization. "To perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to categorize." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Bruner, retrieved June 29, 2007.

40. Robert M. Gagné • Conditions of Learning … there are nine events that activate processes needed for effective learning: gain attention, inform learner of objectives, stimulate recall of prior learning, present stimulus material, provide learner guidance, elicit performance, provide feedback, assess performance, enhance retention and transfer http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_M._Gagn%C3%A9 , retrieved June 29, 2007. http://ide.ed.psu.edu/idde/9events.htm, retrieved June 29, 2007.

41. Cognitivist Principles • Mental models are the key to learning and using knowledge. • Learning is equated with discrete changes between states of knowledge. • Memory is given a prominent role in the learning process. Foshay, W.F.; Silber, K.H., and Stelnicki (2003). Writing Training Materials that Work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pferiffer, p. 17. Silber, K. (1998). Cognitive approach to training development. ETR&D, 46(4), p. 66. Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, p. 58.

42. Cognitivist Principles • Focus is on how learning occurs, how information is received, organized, stored and retrieved by the mind. • The learner is an active participant in the learning process. Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, p. 58-59. http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Cognitive_strategy, retrieved June 30, 2007.

43. Schemata Assimilation Accommodation Chunking Rehearsal Elaboration Mental models Authentic contexts Advance organizers Analogies/metaphors Mnemonics Hierarchical organization Cognitive Characteristics

44. Schemata • Mental structures by which individuals organize their perceived environment. • Students are aware that there are various categories of instruments, clamps, retractors, etc. Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16.

45. Assimilation • Integration of new information and experiences into existing schemata. The schema expends but does not change its basic structure. • The student becomes aware the clamps may be further categorized for various uses vascular clamps, neuro clamps, etc. but all clamps are used for hemostasis. Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16.

46. Accommodation • Modification of existing schemata or creation of new schemata in an attempt to deal with a new concept or experience. • The student becomes aware that not only clamps are used for hemostasis. There are various chemical means as well. Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16.

47. Chunking • Breaking information into smaller bits to improve memory. • When learning surgical instruments we first learn all instruments in a specific group, first the clamps, then the graspers, and so on Silber, K. (1998). Cognitive approach to training development. ETR&D, 46(4), p. 63.

48. Rehearsal • Repetition of information in order to move it from sensory stores to memory • Repeating phone numbers • Association of an important characteristic with a name, i.e. Allis has alligator teeth Foshay, W. R., Silber, K. H. and Steinicki, M. B. (2003). Writing Training Materials that Work. San Drancisco: Pfeiffer/Jossey-Bass, p. 12.

49. Elaboration • Adding information to the information being learned. Association of new information to existing information creates more pathways from which to retrieve the new information. • When students are learning to use instruments such as retractors, we associate this new information with existing information such as the use of kitchen instruments, i.e. forks, knives. Foshay, W. R., Silber, K. H. and Steinicki, M. B. (2003). Writing Training Materials that Work. San Drancisco: Pfeiffer/Jossey-Bass, p. 13.

50. Mental Models • Representations of reality that we use to understand specific phenomena • Association of declarative knowledge • Three types of declarative knowledge are facts, concepts, principles. • Organization of declarative knowledge • Application of declarative knowledge • Bridge between declarative and procedural knowledge Foshay, W. R., Silber, K. H. and Steinicki, M. B. (2003). Writing Training Materials that Work. San Drancisco: Pfeiffer/Jossey-Bass, p. 17. http://home.sprynet.com/%7Egkearsley/tip/models.html, (retrieved June 28, 2007)