NATO ORIENTATION COURSE Module 5

1. NATO ORIENTATION COURSE Module 5 KEY POLITICAL ISSUES (DRAFT) version 1

2. MODULE 5: THE ISSUES 1. The Campaign against Terrorism 2. Crisis Management and Peace-Support Operations 3. NATO Enlargement 4. The European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI) 5. The Defence Capabilities Initiative (DCI) 6. Partnership and Cooperation in the EAPC and PfP 7. NATO and Russia 8. NATO and Ukraine 9. The Mediterranean Dialogue 10. NATO’s South East Europe Initiative version 1

3. 1. The Campaign against Terrorism (1) • On 11 September 2001, day of the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, the North Atlantic Council met to express its solidarity with the United States and unanimously to condemn these barbaric acts committed against a NATO member state. The Council stated that the United States could rely on its 18 Allies in North America and Europe for assistance and support. • On 12 September , the North Atlantic Council met again and agreed that if it were determined that this attack was directed from abroad against the United States, it would be regarded as an action covered by Article 5of the Washington Treaty, which states that an armed attack against one or more of the Allies in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all. It stipulates that in the event of attacks falling within its purview, each Ally will assist the Party that has been attacked by taking such action as it deems necessary. version 1

4. 1. The Campaign against Terrorism (2) • On 2 October , the United States briefed the North Atlantic Council on the results of the investigation into who was responsible for the attacks. In a press statement reporting on the briefing, NATO Secretary General Lord Robertson stated that the facts were clear and compelling, that the information presented pointed conclusively to an Al-Qaida role in the attacks, that the individuals who carried out these attacks were part of the world-wide terrorist network of Al-Qaida, headed by Osama bin Laden, protected by the Taleban regime in Afghanistan. • On the basis of this briefing, the Council had determined that the attack against the United was directed from abroad and shall therefore be regarded as an action covered by Article 5 of the Washington Treaty. version 1

5. 1. The Campaign against Terrorism (3) • Following this decision, the NATO Allies agreed on 4 October, at the request of the United States, to take eight measures, individually and collectively, to expand the options available in the campaign against terrorism. Specifically, they agreed to: • enhance intelligence sharing and co-operation, both bilaterally and in the appropriate NATO bodies, relating to the threats posed by terrorism and the actions to be taken against it; • provide, individually or collectively, as appropriate and according to their capabilities, assistance to Allies and other states which are or may be subject to increased terrorist threats as a result of their support for the campaign against terrorism; • take necessary measures to provide increased security for facilities of the United States and other Allies on their territory; • backfill selected Allied assets in NATO’s area of responsibility that are required to directly support operations against terrorism; version 1

6. 1. The Campaign against Terrorism (4) • provide blanket overflight clearances for the United States and other Allies’ aircraft, in accordance with the necessary air traffic arrangements and national procedures, for military flights related to operations against terrorism; • provide access for the United States and other Allies to ports and airfields on the territory of NATO nations for operations against terrorism, including for refuelling, in accordance with national procedures. • The North Atlantic Council also agreed: • that the Alliance was ready to deploy elements of its Standing Naval Forces to the Eastern Mediterranean in order to provide a NATO presence and demonstrate resolve; and • that the Alliance was similarly ready to deploy elements of its NATO Airborne Early Warning force to support operations against terrorism. version 1

7. 1. The Campaign against Terrorism (5) • What is Article 5 of the Washington Treaty? • The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. • Any such armed attack and all measures taken as a result thereof shall immediately be reported to the Security Council. Such measures shall be terminated when the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security. version 1

8. 1. The Campaign against Terrorism (6) • NATO's Strategic Concept recognises the risks to the Alliance posed by terrorism. • What does Article 5 mean? • Article 5 is at the basis of a fundamental principle of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. It provides that if a NATO Ally is the victim of an armed attack, each and every other member of the Alliance will consider this act of violence as an armed attack against all members and will take the actions it deems necessary to assist the Ally attacked. • This is the principle of collective defence. • NATO Secretary General, Lord Robertson, informed the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the Alliance's decision to invoke Article 5. In subsequent announcements he stated that any collective action by NATO would be decided by the North Atlantic Council following consultations among the Allies. version 1

9. 1. The Campaign against Terrorism (7) • Allies can provide any form of assistance they deem necessary to respond to the situation. This is an individual obligation on each Ally and each Ally is responsible for determining what it deems necessary in these particular circumstances. • Assistance is not necessarily military and depends on the material resources of each country. Each individual member determines how it will contribute and will consult with the other members, bearing in mind that the ultimate aim is to "to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area". • No collective action will be taken by NATO until further consultations are held and further decisions are made by the North Atlantic Council. The United States can also carry out independent actions, consistent with its rights and obligations under the UN Charter. version 1

10. 2. CRISIS MANAGEMENT AND PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS (1) • With the deterioration of the situation in Yugoslavia in the early 1990s and the descent into civil war, it became clear that there were two prequisites for any form of international intervention to prevent escalation and to safeguard the stability of the Balkan area as a whole: • political agreement and determination to act • the military capacity required to launch a complex peacekeeping operation and to sustain it over many months or years. • The Balkan conflicts demonstrated that the only organisation with the necessary capabilities was NATO. • In 1992, NATO offered to support peacekeeing activities under the responsibility of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and subsequently extended the same offer to the United Nations. version 1

11. 2. CRISIS MANAGEMENT AND PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS (2) • From 1992 to 1995 NATO took a number of measures to monitor and implement UN Security Council resolutions relating to the former Yugoslavia and, in 1995, put its authority and military capabilities behind the implementation of the Dayton Peace Agreement that ended the conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina. • The NATO-led Implementation Force (IFOR) broke new ground in the field of multinational crisis management and peacekeeping. It was replaced after one year by a smaller Stabilisation Force (SFOR), which continues to provide the secure environment needed for the rebuilding of the country. • Similarly, the violation of human rights and escalation of the conflict in Kosovo resulted in NATO's military intervention in Kosovo and the subsequent deployment of the NATO-led Kosovo Force (KFOR) in 1999. version 1

12. 2. CRISIS MANAGEMENT AND PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS (3) • In August 2001, at the request of the parties to the agreement brokered by NATO, EU, and US representatives, between the government of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and ethnic Albanian forces opposed to the government, NATO launched a military operation known as Operation Essential Harvest to collect weapons and ammunition on a voluntary basis from the Albanian nationalist forces. • Questions • What is the role of the United Nations with respect to international security? • What factors led to the decision by NATO to become actively engaged in efforts to end the crises in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia*? • What lessons can be learned from these experiences about preconditions for the successful conclusion of similar peacekeeping operations? version 1

13. 3. NATO ENLARGEMENT (1) • The juridical basis for NATO enlargement is Article 10 of the North Atlantic Treaty, which states that: " The Parties may, by unanimous agreement, invite any other European State in a position to further the principles of the Treaty and to contribute to the security of the North Atlantic area to accede to this Treaty". • The first enlargement of the Alliance after its creation in April 1949 took place in 1952 when Greece and Turkey acceded to the Treaty. The Federal Republic of Germany became a member in 1955 and Spain in 1982. With the unification of Germany in 1990 the whole of Germany became de facto a member of the Alliance. • At the Brussels Summit in January 1994, Allied governments reaffirmed that the Alliance remains open to membership of other European states in accordance with Article 10 and stated that they " expect and would welcome NATO enlargement that would reach to democratic states to our East, as part of an evolutionary process, taking into account political and security developments in the whole of Europe". version 1

14. 3. NATO ENLARGEMENT (2) • In September 1995, the Alliance published the results of its Study on NATO Enlargement, which defined the purposes and principles of enlargement. The Study examined: • how to ensure that the enlargement process would contribute to stability and security and support the objective of an undivided Europe; • and how the partnership and cooperation process could contribute concretely to the enlargement process and strengthen the effectiveness of the Alliance, preserving its ability to perform core functions as well as undertaking new tasks. • The Study also spelled out the implications of membership for new members, how should they prepare; and what should be the modalities of the actual enlargement process. version 1

15. 3. NATO ENLARGEMENT (3) • The conclusions of the Study laid the basis for invitations, issued at the Madrid Summit in July 1997 to the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland, to begin negotiations on membership and for the process leading to their accession in March 1999. Alliance leaders have stated that they expect to extend further invitations in coming years and have undertaken to review the enlargement process in 2002. • In April 1999, building on the experience of partnership and cooperation undertaken in the framework of the Partnership for Peace (PfP) introduced in 1994, and the assistance required by the three new member countries in the period leading up to accession, the Alliance launched a Membership Action Plan (MAP) addressed to aspirant countries which have declared their intention to seek membership. Currently nine aspirant countries are participating in this programme. version 1

16. 3. NATO ENLARGEMENT (4) • Questions • What are the implications of enlargement for NATO's decision-making process? • What are the political, military and financial implications of NATO enlargement? • On what basis will decisions be taken on inviting additional countries to begin negotiations on membership? version 1

17. 4. THE EUROPEAN SECURITY AND DEFENCE IDENTITY (ESDI) (1) • The Alliance is committed to reinforcing its European pillar through the development of an effective European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI) which could respond to European requirements and at the same time contribute to Alliance security. • For its part, the European Union (EU) has taken the political decision to develop a European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP), matched by the necessary capabilities to be able to respond to crises. • The goals of ESDI are: • to improve the European contribution to NATO-led operations • and to give Europe a capability to act where NATO as an organisation is not engaged, thereby improving the flexibility and providing additional options for the management of crises in the Euro-Atlantic area version 1

18. 4. THE EUROPEAN SECURITY AND DEFENCE IDENTITY (2) • ESDI has its origins in discussions of burden-sharing within the Alliance and the respective roles of the European and North American pillars of the Alliance, which have influenced NATO policies since the 1950s. • The debate took on new momentum at the beginning of the 1990s, when the EU requested the Western European Union(WEU) - a European security organisation which grew out of commitments made under the Brussels Treaty of 1948 - to elaborate and implement on its behalf EU decisions and actions with defence implications. • In 1999 the EU asserted its own role in handling such matters and created appropriate structures for doing so. • It set itself the goal of being able to deploy and sustain for at least one year a military force of up to 60,000 troops by the year 2003. version 1

19. 4. THE EUROPEAN SECURITY AND DEFENCE IDENTITY (3) • Subsequent discussions between NATO and the EU have focused specifically on detailed arrangements for essential parts of NATO's military assets and capabilities to be made available for military operations led by the EU in precisely defined circumstances. • An essential part of these discussions relates to arrangements that would allow the full participation of all the countries concerned, as well as protecting the interests of NATO member countries which are not members of the EU. • Questions • What are the long-term implications of ESDI for NATO collective defence? • What are the prerequisites for ESDI to succeed? • How can the risks of duplication of planning and competition for resources be addressed? version 1

20. 5. THE DEFENCE CAPABILITIES INITIATIVE (DCI) (1) • In 1999, the Alliance launched a Defence Capabilities Initiative (DCI) designed to improve the capabilities of the Alliance to respond to the challenges of the new security environment and to ensure the effectiveness of future multinational operations across the full spectrum of Alliance missions. • The initiative targets improvements and modernisation of capabilities with regard to: • deployability and mobility, • sustainability and logistics, • effective engagement, • survivability • and consultation, command and control. version 1

21. 5. THE DEFENCE CAPABILITIES INITIATIVE (2) • The initiative is specifically designed to address shortcomings in European capabilities in key areas, such as the availability of transport aircraft needed to move forces rapidly to crisis locations and gaps in modern satellite communications technology required to ensure effective interoperable communications. • Questions • To what extent have DCI commitments made by NATO countries been implemented? • What are the implications of failure to improve NATO's defence capabilities? • What constraints affect the ability of NATO governments to fulfil their DCI pledges? version 1

22. 6. PARTNERSHIP AND COOPERATION IN THE EAPC AND PfP (1) • Opportunities for achieving Alliance objectives through political means were substantially improved by the end of the Cold War, which had divided Europe for five decades. • The Alliance responded by adopting a broad approach to security, of which dialogue and cooperation with non-member countries - including countries which had been part of the Warsaw Pact or the former Soviet Union - formed an essential part. • A forum for multilateral consultation and cooperation between NATO and non-NATO members was created in 1991 when the North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NAC-C) was established. • In 1994 a new framework for bilateral cooperation between individual countries and NATO was created with the launching of the Partnership for Peace (PfP). version 1

23. 6. PARTNERSHIP AND COOPERATION IN THE EAPC AND PfP (2) • By 1995 partnership and cooperation extended to participation of Partner countries in the NATO-led force mandated to implement the peace agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina (IFOR). • Partnership activities now cover almost every sphere of NATO activity. • In 1997, the NAC-C was replaced by the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC), as a multilateral forum bringing together all 27 participating countries with the 19 member countries of NATO as well as providing the collective political context for the individual bilateral relationships with NATO developed by countries participating in PfP. version 1

24. 6. PARTNERSHIP AND COOPERATION IN THE EAPC AND PfP (3) • Since its introduction, the scope of PfP and its operational role have been significantly strengthened. PfP has been instrumental both in preparing the forces of Partner countries for cooperation with NATO forces in operational deployments including IFOR, the subsequent Stabilisation Force in Bosnia- Herzegovina, (SFOR), and the Kosovo Force (KFOR); and in assisting new member countries and aspirant countries to prepare for possible accession. • Questions • What are the practical benefits to Partner countries of cooperation with NATO through the Partnership for Peace? • What are the principal differences between the EAPC and PfP? • What is the future orientation of cooperation in the EAPC/PfP context? version 1

25. 7. NATO AND RUSSIA (1) • Russia was a founder member of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NAC-C) created in 1991 as a multilateral forum for dialogue and cooperation between NATO and Central and Eastern European countries. • The formalisation of NATO's bilateral relations with Russia began when Russia signed the Partnership for Peace Framework Document in 1994. • The NATO-Russia Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security signed in 1997 and the establishment of the NATO-Russia Permanent Joint Council (PJC) placed the relationship on a new institutional basis. • Progress in translating the relationship into practical forms of cooperation has been uneven because of differences over issues such as NATO enlargement and the Kosovo air campaign undertaken by the Alliance to end Serbian repression of the Albanian minority in Kosovo. version 1

26. 7. NATO AND RUSSIA (2) • However close cooperation in a number of important fields has taken place, including Russian participation in the NATO-led Implementation Force (IFOR) in Bosnia-Herzegovina and subsequently in the Stabilisation Force (SFOR), as well as in the Kosovo Force (KFOR). Russian troops make up the largest non-NATO contingents in both of these forces. • A Russian initiative led to the establishment at NATO of the Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Coordination Centre (EADRCC). • A NATO Information Office has also been established in Moscow. Discussions between Russia and NATO take place in the framework of the PJC on issues such as peacekeeping, non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, arms control, defence reforms, search and rescue at sea, civil emergency planning, and scientific and environmental matters. version 1

27. 7. NATO AND RUSSIA (3) • Both Russia and NATO are committed to strengthening the cooperation between them. • Questions • Why does NATO attach high priority to the development of practical cooperation with Russia? • What future challenges face NATO-Russia relations? • What Russian interests can be served by developing its cooperation with NATO? version 1

28. 8. NATO AND UKRAINE (1) • Ukraine achieved independence in 1991 and has since become increasingly integrated into European and transatlantic security structures, participating in the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, the Partnership for Peace and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council. • Its relationship with NATO took on a new institutionalised form with the signature of the Charter on a Distinctive Partnership between NATO and Ukraine and the establishment of the NATO-Ukraine Commission in 1997. • The signing of the Charter reaffirmed Ukraine's role as an active participant in Euro-Atlantic affairs and contributor to European stability and security, as well as Alliance support for Ukrainian sovereignty and independence, territorial integrity, democratic development, economic prosperity and status as a non-nuclear weapons state. version 1

29. 8. NATO AND UKRAINE (2) • Cooperation between NATO and Ukraine covers a broad range of topics in fields such as peacekeeping and defence reform. • Ukraine has made significant contributions to the NATO-led Implementation Force in Bosnia-Herzegovina (IFOR) and to the Stabilisation Force (SFOR), as well as to the Kosovo Force (KFOR). • A Memorandum of Understanding was signed in 1997, establishing Civil Emergency Planning as a major area of cooperation. • A NATO Information and Documentation Centre was opened in Kyiv in 1997. • A NATO Military Liaison Office was established in 1999 to facilitate contacts between NATO and civil and military agencies involved in Ukrainian participation in the Partnership for Peace. version 1

30. 8. NATO AND UKRAINE (3) • Questions • What are the political implications for Ukraine of developing closer cooperation with NATO? • What are the challenges facing Ukraine in the field of defence reform? • What forms of regional bilateral cooperation has Ukraine entered into since its independence? version 1

31. 9. THE MEDITERRANEAN DIALOGUE (1) • NATO’s Mediterranean Dialogue involves seven countries in the Mediterranean region – Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia – in political dialogue and practical cooperation in areas of interest to the participants. • Examples are activities in the fields of science, civil emergency planning, education and training courses and information programmes. • The Dialogue is based on the recognition of the close links between stability in the Mediterranean area and security in Europe as a whole. • Its aims are to improve understanding and to contribute to regional security and stability. version 1

32. 9. THE MEDITERRANEAN DIALOGUE (2) • The Dialogue is a progressive process, which is not intended to duplicate other regional initiatives but to strengthen understanding and cooperation in areas where NATO can offer added value, for example in fields such as: • peacekeeping, • arms control and verification, • environmental issues relating to military forces • and European security cooperation. • The Dialogue was launched in 1994. In 1997, a Mediterranean Cooperation Group was established to provide a forum which involved NATO member countries directly in political discussions with Dialogue countries on issues relevant to security in the Mediterranean region and on the future development of the Dialogue. version 1

33. 9. THE MEDITERRANEAN DIALOGUE (3) • Questions • What examples have there been of practical cooperation between NATO and Mediterranean Dialogue countries? • What should be the future evolution of the Dialogue? version 1

34. 10. NATO’s SOUTH EAST EUROPE INITIATIVE (1) • The goal of NATO’s South East Europe Initiative is to promote regional cooperation and long-term security and stability in this region. Launched in 1999, • It brings together NATO countries with six Partner countries (Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia *, Slovenia) as well as Bosnia-Herzegovina. • The initiative has two main pillars. • Firstly, an open-ended Ad Hoc Group on Regional Cooperation, under the auspices of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC), has been established to promote efforts to stimulate and support practical, regional cooperation among countries of southeastern Europe. This has led, for example, to agreement between southeastern European defence ministers on setting up a regional Security Assistance Cooperation Group known as SEEGROUP. version 1

35. 10. NATO’s SOUTH EAST EUROPE INITIATIVE (2) • Secondly, countries in the region have taken up a NATO initiative to develop a South East Europe Common Assessment Paper on Regional Security Challenges and Opportunities, known as SEECAP. This sets out common perceptions of security challenges among the signatory countries and identifies opportunities for cooperation in addressing them. • The initiative also involves country-specific security cooperation programmes such as those being developed with Croatia and with Bosnia-Herzegovina, and support for regional activities such as mine action, efforts to control small and light arms, crisis management simulation and air traffic management. • The initiative uses methods developed in the Partnership for Peace framework to address issues of importance for the region, including matters such as transparency in defence planning and defence structures. version 1

36. 10. NATO’s SOUTH EAST EUROPE INITIATIVE (3) • Complementary activities include a programmes of assistance for the retraining of officers made redundant by military reforms in Bulgaria and Romania, undertaken within the framework of the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe, involving NATO and the World Bank. • Questions • What are the principal prerequisites for building peaceful relations in South East Europe? • How can NATO play a greater part in speeding up progress in this field? version 1