METEOROLOGY

1. METEOROLOGY GEL-1370

2. Chapter Three Air Temperature

3. Daily Temperature Variations We are going to learn answers to the following questions: • Why warmest time of the day is normally in the afternoon • Why the coldest time is usually in the early morning

4. Temperature variations • Each sunny day air goes through a daily cycle of warming and cooling • Around noon, earth receives the most intense solar rays – maximum temperature is reached in the late afternoon – even though incoming solar radiation decreases in intensity after noon, incoming solar radiation > outgoing heat energy from the surface --- energy surplus for 2-4 hours after noon • Highest reading of temperature occurs at: • 3-5:00 PM if cloud free, summer afternoon • If afternoon cloud exists, max temp occurs 1-2 hr earlier • Cloudy days: Overall daytime temp lower – clouds reflect a great deal of incoming sunlight

5. Sunny, calm day – air temperature profile

6. Temperature variations-contd. • Adjacent to large water bodies: Warmest part of the day occurs at noon or before • Wet soil: Only small heat is used to heat and major portion goes in evaporating the water • Clear skies (low precipitation), low humidity, meager vegetation --- leads to hot air • Two places in the same latitude have different temps. – eg., Atlanta (humid) ‘s max July average temp.~30.5°C; Phoenix (AZ): .~40.5°C • Late afternoon, early morning: Air starts cooling, as air begins to loose more energy than they receive • Radiation cooling: Both air and ground cool by radiating infrared radiation

7. Radiation Inversion • Radiation Inversion:Measured increase in air temp just above the ground – formed mainly through radiational cooling of the surface – Most inversions occur on clear, calm nights (also called nocturnal inversions) Windless night is essential for a strong radiation inversion – breeze can mix the colder air at the surface with the warmer air above A long night contributes to a strong inversion-longer the night, longer the time of radiational cooling Radiation inversion is more likely with a clear sky and dry air How cold the night becomes depends on length of night, moisture content of the air, cloudiness and wind

8. Air temp is controlled by incoming energy

9. Radiation temp inversion- increase in air temp with increasing height

10. Daily Temperature variations • Valley bottoms are colder than surrounding hillsides • How cold season affects crops: • Lower branches of a tree are the most susceptible to damage • Orchard Heaters are used to set-up convection currents • Wind Machines to the cold air at the ground with the warmer air above • Trees can be protected by irrigation – water has a high heat capacity • Wet soil has a higher thermal conductivity than dry soil – heat from subsurface is conducted upward • Freeze: Air becomes colder with height; water spray on the branches becomes ice crystal and latent heat released keeps the temperature at 0°C

11. Temperature profile in a hill-valley region

12. Orchard Heaters circulate air by convection

13. Wind machines mix cooler surface air with warmer air above

14. Temperature Controls • The Main Temperature controls are; • Latitude (Temperature decrease poleward from the tropics and subtropics in both Jan and July; greater variation in solar radiation in winter between low and high latitudes than summer) • Land & Water Distribution (for a given latitude, the temp are much lower in the middle of continents than near the ocean; water has higher specific heat capacity) • Ocean Currents:Air temp at margin of continents are affected by ocean currents • Elevation: Air temperature varies with height • Specific Heat:Heat needed to raise the temp of 1 g of substance by 1°C (5 times more heat is needed for water than soil or rock)

15. Average air temp near sea level in Jan.

16. Average air temp near sea level in July

17. Air Temperature Variations • Diurnal range of temp.: Difference between the daily maximum and minimum temperature (largest range in deserts-cloud-free, little water vapor to radiate IR back to the surface) • Mean Daily Temperature: Average of highest and lowest temperature for a 24-hour period • Normal Mean Temperature: Average of the mean daily temperatures for a particular date averaged for a 30-yr period • Annual Range of Temperature: Difference between the average temp of the warmest and the coldest months; in equator, this range is small (3°C in Quito, Ecuador; 62 °C Yakutsk in northeastern Siberia near the Arctic Circle)

18. Air Temperature Variations – contd. • Mean Annual Temperature: The average of the 12 monthly average temperatures; or sum of the daily means divided by 365 • Example: A southwestern City has a Normal temperature of 68°F (during the last 30 yrs, the values ranged from 47 to 89 °F) – What is a typical high temperature? Any high temp between 47 to 89 °F (two standard deviations on either side of 68°F ) would be considered typical for this day. • Unusual when the maximum value exceeds this range • For Rainfall, the same reasoning is valid

19. Decrease of Range from earth’s surface

20. High temp on March 15 for 30 yrs in a city in southwestern US (dashed line: Normal Temp.)

21. Comparison of temp data for 2 cities with the same mean annual temperature

22. Use of Temperature Data • Heating degree-day:A measure of the energy needs – usage of furnace below 65°F; = Mean temperature - 65°F (one day MT: 75 °F --- 75-65=10 heating degree-day) • Cooling degree-day: A measure of the energy needed to cool indoor air to a comfortable level = 65 °F - Mean temperature - 65°F (one day MT: 45 °F --- 65-45=20 cooling degree-day) • Uses of these two parameters: Allows builder to plan the size & type of equipment needed for adequate airconditioning/heating; to predict power demand during peak energy periods; practical indication of energy needs in a year

23. Mean annual total heating degree-days in thousands of °F (base: 65°F)

24. Mean annual total cooling degree-days in thousands of °F (base: 65°F)

25. Use of temperature data – contd. • Growing degree-day:A day on which the mean daily temperature is one degree above the base temperature (minimum temperature required for growth); An index to determine when a crop will be ready for harvesting [eg., for Rice, base temp is 60°F; in one sunny day in TX, the mean temp is 70 °F; rice would accumulate 10 growing degree-days (=70-60 °F) • Crop (variety/location) Base Temp Growing degree-days (°F) (to Maturity) • Beans (Snap/S. Carolina) 50 1200-1300 • Wheat (Indiana) 40 2100-2400 • Rice (Vegold/Arkansas) 60 1700-2100 • Peas (Early/Indiana) 40 1100-1200 • Cotton (Delta Smooth/Ark.) 60 1900-2500 • Corn (Sweet/Indiana) 50 2200-2800

26. Air temperature use and human comfort • Moisture content and other factors do affect the growing degree-days, yet useful to forecast the dates of crop maturity • Human Comfort: Human body’s perception depends on atmospheric conditions --- due to how we exchange heat energy with the environment • Heat Exchange from the body: Heat produced and adsorbed (radiation absorption + gain by conduction/convection) = Heat lost to the surroundings (emit IR energy + loses by conduction/convection) • Sensible Temp.: The temp we perceive; on a cold day, thin layer of warm air molecules forms close to the skin, protecting it from the surrounding cooler air and rapid transfer of heat

27. Human comfort – contd. • Wind-Chill Factor: Blowing Wind sweeps away the insulating layer – heat is constantly removed from the body – Faster the wind speed, greater the heat loss and the colder we feel

28. Wind Chill Equivalent Temperature (°F) • Air Temp in 1st Row and Wind Speed (mi/hr) in 1st Column

29. Human comfort – contd. • Frostbite:Freezing of skin - due to high wind below-freezing air makes the skin freeze and discolor • Cold, rainy day often feels colder than a ‘dry’ one because skin conducts heat away from the body better than air does (Fairbanks, AK vs Coastal Texas for the same temperature) • In cold weather, heat is easily dissipated through the skin; to counter this loss, the peripheral blood vessels of the body constrict, cutting off the flow of blood to the outer layers of the skin; in hot weather, to radiate more heat, blood vessels enlarge

30. Measuring Air Temperature • Liquid-in glass thermometer: When air temp increases, liquid in the bulb expands, and rises the tube; when temp decreases, liquid contracts, and moves down the tube; length of the liquid in the tube represents temp. • Maximum and Minimum thermometer: To measure daily maximum and minimum temperatures; Maximum Ther.: When temp begins to drop, the small constriction prevents the Hg from flowing back into the bulb – stationary column--- max temp.

31. Minimum Temperature • Minimum Thermometer: Measures the lowest temperature reached during a given period. Most minimum temp thermometers use alcohol as a liquid (freezing point -130°C, Hg -39 °C); When air temp drops decreasing, liquid and index marker stop moving down the bore; when the air warms, the alcohol expands but moves freely up, but index marker does not move – minimum temp is read by observing the upper end of the marker

32. Other Thermometers • Highly accurate temp measurements made with electrical thermometer – Thermister, Electrical resistance thermometer – Wheatstone bridge (Resistance a temp.) • Radiometers: Infrared sensors – measure emitted radiation- by measuring the intensity and wavelength, satellites can estimate the air temp. • Bimetallic Thermometer: Temperature –sensitive part of the Thermograph – an instrument that measures and records temperature

33. Thermograph with a bimetallic Thermometer