Topic 5 – Migration and Urbanization

1. Topic 5 – Migration and Urbanization A – Migration Issues B – Migration Theory C – Refugees D – Urbanization

2. A Migration Issues • 1. Types of Migration • What are the major forms of migration? • 2. Selective Migration • Why migration can be considered as a selective process? • 3. Brain Drain • What is the extent of movements of skilled labor?

3. 1 Types of Migration • Emigration and immigration • Change in residence. • Relative to origin and destination. • Requires information • People and conditions. • Two different places. • Two different times. • Duration • Permanent. • Seasonal / Temporary. • Choice / constraint • Improve one’s life. • Leave inconvenient / threatening conditions. A Problems or benefits? Emigrant Immigrant B Problems or benefits?

4. 1 Types of Migration • Gross migration • Total number of people coming in and out of an area. • Level of population turnover. • Net Migration • Difference between immigration (in-migration) and emigration (out-migration). • Positive value: • More people coming in. • Population growth. • 44% of North America and 88% of Europe. • Negative value: • More people coming out. • Population decline. Gross migration Immigration Emigration Net migration

5. 1 Annual Net International Migration by Continent, 1990-95

6. 1 Net Migration, 2000-05

7. 1 Types of Migration • International Migration • Emigration is an indicator of economic and/or social failures of a society. • Crossing of a national boundary. • Easier to control and monitor. • Laws to control / inhibit these movements. • Between 2 million and 3 million people emigrate each year. • Between 1965 and 2000, 175 million people have migrated: • 3% of the global population.

8. 1 Migration Policies and Global Migration Patterns

9. 1 World Migration Routes Since 1700 European African (slaves) Indian Chinese Japanese Majority of population descended from immigrants

10. Total Slave Population, United States (1790-1860)

11. 1 Major International Migration Patterns, 1990s

12. 1 International Migration: Main Destination Countries, 1997

13. 1 Immigration to the United States, 1820-2003 Latin America Asia Southeast Europe Germany Scandinavia British Isles

14. 1 Region of Birth of the Foreign-Born Population: 1850 to 2000

15. 1 Top 10 Countries of Origin for US Legal Immigrants, 1995-2003

16. 1 US Population by Race and Ethnicity, 1990-2050

17. 1 Illegal Aliens in the United States by Country of Origin, 1990-2000 (in 1,000s)

18. 1 Types of Migration • Internal Migration • Within one country. • Crossing domestic jurisdictional boundaries. • Movements between states or provinces. • Little government control. • Factors: • Employment-based. • Retirement-based. • Education-based. • Civil conflicts (internally displaced population).

19. 1 Migration by Major Metropolitan Areas in the United States, 1990-98 (in 1,000s)

20. 1 Types of Migration • Local Migration • No state boundaries are crossed. • Buying a new house in the same town or city. • Difficult to research since they are usually missed in census data. • Based on change of income or lifestyle. • Often very high levels of local migration. • Americans change residence every 5 to 7 years. Central City Suburb

21. 1 Types of Migration • Voluntary migration • The migrant makes the decision to move. • Most migration is voluntary. • Involuntary • Forced migration in which the mover has no role in the decision-making process. • Slavery: • About 11 million African slaves were brought to the Americas between 1519 and 1867. • In 1860, there were close to 4 million slaves in the United States. • Refugees. • Military conscription. • Children of migrants. • Situations of divorce or separation.

22. 1 Types of Migration

23. 2 Selective Migration • Context • Many migrations are selective. • Do not represent a cross section of the source population. • Differences: • Age. • Sex. • Level of education. • Age-specific migrations • One age group is dominant in a particular migration. • International migration tends to involve younger people. • The dominant group is between 25 and 45. • Studies and retirement are also age-specific migrations.

24. 2 Population Pyramid of Native and Foreign Born Population, United States, 2000 (in %) Foreign Born Native Male Female Age Male Female

25. 2 Selective Migration • Sex-specific migrations • Males: • Often dominant international migrations. • Once established, try to bring in a wife. • Females: • Often dominate rural to urban migrations. • Find jobs as domestic help or in new factories. • Send remittances back home. • Filipino females 17-30 to Hong Kong and Japan. • “Mail-order bride”: • 100,000 – 150,000 women a year advertise themselves for marriage. • About 10,000 available on the Internet at any time. • Mainly from Southeast Asia and Russia. • Come from places in which jobs and educational opportunities for women are scarce and wages are low.

26. 2 Selective Migration • Education-specific migrations • May characterize some migrations (having or lacking of). • High level of education attained by most contemporary Asian immigrants to the USA and Canada. • Educational differences: • 21% of all legal immigrants have at least 17 years of education. • 8% for native-born Americans. • 20% of all immigrants do not have 9 years of schooling. • Foreign students: • Often do not return to their home countries after their education. • Often cannot utilize what they have learned. • Since 1978 some 130,000 Chinese overseas students have returned while some 250,000 have remained abroad. • Most research-oriented graduate institutions have around 40% foreign students.

27. 2 Selective Migration • Immigration and jobs • Related to the economic sector. • High level: • Filling high skilled position in science, technology and education. • Not enough highly trained personnel in the US. • Result in recruiting abroad (see brain drain). • Low level: • Filling low paid jobs (minimum wage) that most people do not want (agriculture and low level services). • Maintain low wages in low skilled jobs. • Possibility of an informal economy.

28. 3 Brain Drain • Definition • Relates to educationally specific selective migrations. • Some countries are losing the most educated segment of their population. • Can be both a benefit for the receiving country and a problem to the country of origin. • Receiving country • Getting highly qualified labor contributing to the economy right away. • Promotes economic growth in strategic sectors: science and technology. • Not having to pay education and health costs. • 30% of Mexicans with a PhD are in the US.

29. 3 Brain Drain • Country of origin • Education and health costs not paid back. • Losing potential leaders and talent: • Between 15 and 40% of a graduating class in Canada will move to the US. • Long term impact on economic growth. • Possibility of remittances. • Many brain drain migrants have skills which they can’t use at home: • The resources and technology may not be available there. • The specific labor market is not big enough. • May eventually come back with skills and connections: • Korea, Taiwan, China and India.

30. 3 Non US Citizens with Science and Engineering Doctorates in the United States, 1999

31. 3 Likelihood of the Well-Educated to Stay, 1998 10 = most likely

32. Percentage of College Educated Citizens Living Abroad

33. 3 H-1B Work Visas by Major Occupation, 1999-2000

34. 3 H-1B Work Visas by Level of Education, 1999-2000

35. B Migration Theory • 1. Push - Pull Theory • What are the major “push” and “pull” factors behind migration? • 2. Economic Approaches • How can migration be explained from an economic perspective? • 3. Behavioral Explanations to Migration • How can migration be explained from a human behavior perspective?

36. 1 Push - Pull Theory • Context • Migrations as the response of individual decision-makers. • Negative or push factors in his current area of residence: • High unemployment and little opportunity. • Great poverty. • High crime. • Repression or a recent disaster (e.g., drought or earthquake). • Positive or pull factors in the potential destination: • High job availability and higher wages. • More exciting lifestyle. • Political freedom, greater safety and security, etc.

37. 1 Push - Pull Theory • Intervening obstacles • Migration costs / transportation. • Immigration laws and policies of the destination country. • The problem of perception • Assumes rational behavior on the part of the migrant: • Not necessarily true since a migrant cannot be truly informed. • The key word is perception of the pull factors. • Information is never complete. • Decisions are made based upon perceptions of reality at the destination relative to the known reality at the source. • When the migrant’s information is highly inaccurate, a return migration may be one possible outcome.

38. 1 Push - Pull Theory Intervening obstacles Origin Destination Positive factors Neutral factors Negative factors

39. 1 Push-Pull Factors for Chinese Students Deciding to Say in the United States, 1997

40. 1 Push-Pull Factors for Chinese Students Deciding to Return to China, 1997

41. 2 Economic Approaches • Labor mobility • The primary issue behind migration. • Notably the case at the national level. • Equilibrate the geographical differences in labor supply and demand. • Accelerated with the globalization of the economy. • Remittances • Capital sent by workers working abroad to their family / relatives at home. • $62 billion in 1999: • $16 billion each year goes out of Saudi Arabia as remittances. • 2nd most important most important source of income for Mexico (after oil and before tourism); 16.6 billion in 2004. Labor shortages High wages Migration Surplus labor Low wages

42. 2 Worker’s Remittances, top 10 countries, 1995-1999 (in $US)

43. 3 Behavioral Explanations of Migration • Life-cycle factors • Migration linked to events in one’s life. • People in their 30s are the most mobile. • Education, career, and family are being established. • Later in life, flexibility decreases and inertia increases. • Retirement often brings a major change. • Large migrations of retired people have been occurring in the direction of amenities-oriented areas. 25 50 75 Stay with parents Move to college First job Marriage Promotion Children leave home Retirement Loss of mobility

44. 3 Behavioral Explanations of Migration • Migrants as risk-takers • Why, among a population in the same environment (the same push factors), some leave and some stay? • Migrants tend to be greater risk-takers, more motivated, more innovative and more adaptable. • Non-migrants tend to be more cautious and conservative. • Can be used to explain the relative dynamism in some societies, like the USA since the 1800s. • Summary • No one theory of migration can adequately explain this huge worldwide phenomenon. • Each brings a contribution to the understanding of why people move.

45. C Refugees • 1. Definition • What is a refugee and how one qualifies for this status? • 2. Contemporary Evolution • How the refugee situation has evolved in time?

46. 1 Definition • The United Nations definition • The 1951 Convention Regarding the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol on the Status of Refugees: • “..... any person who, owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for any reasons of race, religion, nationality, member of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country.…” . • The problem lies in the definition of who is a refugee. • There are no international agreements to protect people who cross boundaries for their economic survival.

47. 1 Definition • Conditions to qualify for refugee status • Political persecution must be demonstrated. • An international boundary must be crossed: • Domestically displaced persons do not qualify. • Protection by one’s government is not seen an alternative: • The government may be the persecutor. • Could be incapable of protecting its citizens from persecution.

48. 1 Definition • Environmental and economic refugees • People who can no longer gain a secure livelihood in their homelands because of what are primarily environmental or economic factors of unusual scope. • Sources: • Natural disaster. • Human alterations to the environment; climate change. • Contamination (pollution) of the environment. • Lack of development and opportunities. • Render continued residence in that particular location unsustainable. • Mozambique, February 2000: • Floods made 1 million people homeless. • Destroyed agricultural land and cattle.

49. 2 Contemporary Evolution • Origins • The first recorded refugees were the Protestant Huguenots who left France to avoid religious persecution. • About 200,000 at the end of the 17th century. • Went to England, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the English colonies in North America. • Pre-WW II and during WW II • Primarily political elites: • Fleeing repression from the new government, which overthrew them. • Usually small in number and often had substantial resources available to them. • War-driven refugees: • About 12% of the European population displaced. • Usually could be expected to repatriate after the war ended.

50. 2 Contemporary Evolution • Post WW II • Change in the patterns of refugee flows: • The majority of refugees are now coming from the developing world. • De-colonization in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean: • Political unrest in many newly independent states. • Multi-ethnic nature of those states. • The result of the drawing of colonial boundary lines by Europeans. • The Cold War also increased political instability in a number of countries. • Political instability in Latin America increased due to the vast social inequalities existing in that region. • New kind of refugee flow: • Large and of long (or permanent) duration.