Post-Classical Survey

1. Post-Classical Survey A tour of the world from 600 C.E. to 1450 C.E.

2. FROM ROMAN EMPIRE TO BYZANTINE EMPIRE • The later Roman empire • Western half crumbled, eastern half remained intact • The Byzantine emperors faced different challenges • The early Byzantine State • Caesaropapism: Emperor is both Caesar and pope • 476 to late 6th Century CE • Justinian: Justinian Code • Issued Corpus iuris civilis (The Body of the Civil Law) • The code influenced civil law codes of western Europe • Imperial organization • Government run by trained bureaucracy, professional army • The theme system strengthened Byzantine society • -Under rule of general, who ran army, civil bureaucracy • -Responsible for protecting peasants • -Themes were provinces organized on a military basis • -Local officials recruited troops from within theme • Aristocrats limited by army, emperor, bureaucracy

3. BYZANTINE EMPIRE c. 600 CE

4. THE THREAT OF ISLAM

5. MAP OF THE EMPIRE

6. BYZANTINE ECONOMY • The Agricultural Economy • The peasantry • The backbone of the Byzantine army and economy • Landless peasants worked as share-croppers • Since 11th century, free peasants declined • Consequences of the peasantry's decline • Landowners shifted taxes to peasants • Landowners raised forces on estates • Pool of military recruits shrank • Industry and Trade • Manufacturing enterprises • Byzantine craftsmen had high reputation in various industries • High-quality silk became important industry; imperial monopoly • Trade • Constantinople, important for Eurasian, Mediterranean trade • Solidus was the standard currency of the Mediterranean basin • Byzantium drew enormous wealth from foreign trade • Banks and partnerships supported commercial economy

7. BYZANTINE CHURCH • Church and state • Church's close relationship with the imperial government • Under emperors, church was department of state • Iconoclasm • Controversy over use of icons in religious services • Old Testament prohibition on false images, Islamic influences • Iconoclasts wanted to purge all churches of icons • The iconoclasts abandoned their effort in 843 C.E. • Much protest, excommunications from pope • Emperors worried • Greek Philosophy and Byzantine theology • Examine theology from philosophical point of view • Debate about Jesus's nature, a philosophical issue

8. THE GREAT SCHISM • Constantinople and Rome • Iconoclastic movement in the east criticized by the west • Emperors vs. Popes • Who is head of the church – pope or an emperor • Ritual, doctrinal differences • Leavened vs. unleavened bread • Marriage of priests • Liturgy in the vernacular • Council rule versus the monarchical style of the pope • Filoque controversy: Holy Spirit – from who does it proceed? • Schism • Power struggle led to mutual excommunication, 1054 • Rivalry between pope, patriarch • Papal ambassador excommunicated patriarch; vise versa • Origins of Eastern Orthodox & Roman Catholic churches • It was really post-1054 actions were made split permanent

9. DOMESTIC PROBLEMS AND FOREIGN CHALLENGES • Social problems • Free peasants were declining in number and prosperity • Imperial government had fewer recruits, many fiscal problems • Challenges from the east • Muslim Seljuk Turks invaded Anatolia, defeat Byzantines, 1071 • Also took control of Abbasid Caliphate, Holy places in Jerusalem • The loss of Anatolia sealed the fate of the Byzantine empire • Challenges from the west • The fourth crusade sacked Constantinople • Byzantine forces recaptured the capital in 1261 • Byzantines never recovered • Turks gradually push Byzantines out of Asia; into Europe

10. MAP OF BYZANTINE PROBLEMS

11. ISLAM THE FIRST TRANS-REGIONAL CIVILIZATION

12. 6TH CENTURY ARABIA

13. MUHAMMAD’S EARLY LIFE • The Quran • Followers compiled Muhammad's actual revelations after his death • Quran ("recitation"), became the holy book of Islam • Suras are chapters; organized from longest to shortest • A work of magnificent poetry • The Hadith • Sayings attributed to Muhammad; not included in Quran • Three levels from most accurate/likely to highly suspect

14. THE HIJRA (FLIGHT) • The hijra • Under persecution, Muhammad, followers fled to Medina, 622 C.E. • The move, known as hijra, was starting point of Islamic calendar • The umma • Organized a cohesive community called umma in Medina • Led commercial adventure • Sometimes launched raids against Mecca caravans • Helped the poor and needy • The "seal of the prophets" • Referred himself as "seal of the prophets," - final prophet of Allah • Held Hebrew scriptures and New Testament in high esteem • Referred to followers as “Peoples of the Book” • If they did not threaten umma, were to be protected • Determined to spread Allah's wish to all humankind

15. CONQUEST OF ARABIA • Conquered Mecca, 630 • The Kaa'ba • In 632, Muhammad led the first Islamic pilgrimage to the Ka'ba • The Five Pillars of Islam • Obligations taught by Muhammad • The Five Pillars bound the umma into a cohesive community of faith • Profession of faith, prayer, tithing, pilgrimage, fasting at Ramadan • Islamic law: the sharia • Emerged during the centuries after Muhammad • Detailed guidance on proper behavior in almost every aspect of life • Drew laws, precepts from the Quran • Drew traditions from Arabic culture, Hadith • Through the sharia, Islam became a religion and a way of life

16. EXPANSION OF ISLAM • The caliph • Abu Bakr served as caliph ("deputy") • Became head of state, chief judge, religious leader, military commander • The expansion of Islam • 633-637, seized Byzantine Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia • 640's, conquered Egypt and north Africa • 651, toppled Sassanid dynasty • 711-718, conquered the Hindu kingdom of Sind, Iberia, NW Africa • Success due to weakness of enemies, vigor of Islam • Dar al Islam • The Islamic world where the Sharia is in force, Islam dominates • Dar el Harb is the land of the unbelievers, or non-Muslims • The Shia and Sunnis • The Sunnis ("traditionalists") accepted legitimacy of early caliphs • Were Arab as opposed to Islamic • Did not feel caliphs had to be related to Muhammad • The Shia sect supported Ali (last caliph and son in law of Muhammad) • A refuge for non-Arab converts, poor; followers in Irag, Iran • Felt caliphs should be directly related to Muhammad • Two sects struggled over succession; produced a civil war, murder

17. SPREAD OF ISLAM

18. UMAYYAD DYNASTY • The Umayyad dynasty (661-750 C.E.) • New caliph won civil war; murdered Ali; established dynasty • Established capital city at Damascus in Syria • Ruled for the interests of Arabian military aristocracy • Policy toward conquered peoples • Dhimmis were the conquered Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians • Levied jizya (head tax) on those who did not convert to Islam • Even the converts did not enjoy wealth, position of authority • Umayyad decline • Caliphs became alienated from Arabs by early 8th century • By the mid-century, faced strong resistance of the Shia faction • The discontent of conquered peoples also increased • Umayyad family slaughtered; only one son escaped to Spain • Formed breakaway Umayyad Dynasty in Spain

19. ABBASID DYNASTY • Abu al-Abbas • A descendant of Muhammad's uncle; allied with Shias and non-Arab Muslims • Shattered Umayyad forces at a battle in 750; annihilated the Umayyad clan • The Abbasid dynasty (750-1258 C.E.) • Showed no special favor to Arab military aristocracy • Empire still growing, but not initiated by the central government • Abbasid administration • Relied heavily on Persians, Persian techniques of statecraft • Central authority ruled from the court at Baghdad, newly built city • Governors ruled provinces; Ulama, qadis (judges) ruled local areas • Abbasid decline • Struggle for succession led to civil war • Governors built their own power bases, regional dynasties • Local military commanders took title of Sultan • Popular uprisings and peasant rebellions weakened the dynasty • A Persian noble seized control of Baghdad in 945 • Later, the Seljuk Turks controlled the imperial family

20. AN URBAN CIVILIZATION • Arab Urban History • Pre-Islamic Arabs were both urban, bedouin • Nomads came to city to trade, city often settled by whole tribes • Arabs had settled in cities in Syria, Iraq, Jordan • Arabic cities linked to wider world through merchants, trade • Arabic Empire and Urban Growth • Islam as a culture requires mosque, merchant: very urban in outlook • Arabs founded military cities on edges of desert to rule empire • Increasing agricultural production contributed to growth of cities • Cities: centers for administration, industry, trade, education, faith • Many different ethnic minorities settled in Muslim cities (quarters) • Mosque at center surrounded by suk, square, in decreasing social order

21. CHANGED ECONOMICS • Merchants, pilgrims, travelers exchanged foods across empire • The exchange and spread of food and industrial crops • Indian plants traveled to other lands of the empire • Staple crops: sugarcane, rice, new varieties of sorghum and wheat • Vegetables: spinach, artichokes, eggplants • Fruits: oranges, lemons, limes, bananas, coconuts, watermelons, mangoes • Industrial crops: cotton, indigo, henna • Effects of new crops • Increased varieties and quantities of food • Industrial crops became the basis for a thriving textile industry • Foodstuffs increased health, populations of cities • Agricultural experimentation • Numerous agricultural manuals • Agricultural methods and techniques improved • Improved irrigation

22. A VAST TRADE ZONE • Camels and caravans • Overland desert trade traveled mostly by camel caravan • Caravanserais (motel, corrals) in Islamic cities • Trading goods usually luxury in nature • Maritime trade based on technological borrowing • Arab, Persian mariners borrowed • Compass from the Chinese • Lateen sail from southeast Asian, Indian mariners • Astrolabe from the Hellenistic mariners • Organization and dominance of trade • In North Africa across Sahara, down Nile, SW Asia, to India • Eastern Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabia Gulf down coasts • Many cities grew rich from trade • Entrepreneurs often pooled their resources in group investments • Different kinds of joint endeavors • Banks • Operated on large scale and provided extensive services • Letters of credit, or sakk, functioned as bank checks • Exchange of Ideas included Islam, technology, culture

23. ISLAMIC TRADE

24. OTHER ISLAMIC REGIONS • Al-Andalus • Islamic Spain, conquered by Muslim Berbers • Claimed independence from the Abbasid dynasty • Participated in commercial life of the larger Islamic world • Products of al-Andalus enjoyed a reputation for excellence • Cordoba was a center of learning, commerce, architecture • After death of Abd al Rahman III broke up into petty kingdoms • A unique blended culture • Arab, Latin, German, Islamic, Christian, Jewish • Very tolerant and integrated society • Warred for 700 years with Christian kingdoms in north • North Africa • Strong followers of Shia, broke with Abbassids • Berbers followed many puritanical Shia like movements • Eventually Fatimids conquered Egypt, formed rival caliphate • Central Asia • Largely Turkish, Persian and Islamic but not Arabic • Tended to be distant from Baghdad and more tolerant • Integrated into trans-Eurasian trade network

25. MUSLIM SPAIN

26. WOMEN’S CHANGING STATUS • Pre-Islamic Arab Women • Arabs as nomads allowed women many rights • Women often poets, tribe leaders • Some evidence of matrilineal tribes • The Quran and women • Quran enhanced rights, security of women • Forced husbands to honor contracts, love women • Allowed women to own property, protected from exploitation • What produced the change • Foreign Contacts changed the perspective • Adopted veiling from Mesopotamia, Persia • Isolation from India through purdah, harem • Muslim rights for women • Often weaken through Hadith, traditions • Often reduced, ignored • Patriarch beliefs reinforced by conquest • Yet Quran, sharia also reinforced male domination • Role of Hadith, Arab traditions reinforced male domination

27. IMAGE OF WOMEN

28. ISLAM & OTHER CONTACTS • Persian influence on Islam • After Arabs most prominent of Muslims, resisted Arabization • Cultural traditions often borrowed heavily by Islam • Became early followers of Shia • Government and regionalism • Many advisors (vizer is Persian word) to Caliphs were Persian • Cultured, diplomatic language of Abbassid court became Persian • Literary achievements • Omar Khayyam was greatest of Medieval Muslim poets • The Arabian Nights largely in a Persian style • Turkish influences • Central Asian nomads converted to Islam, developed literary culture • Invaded SW Asia and made caliphate dependent on Turkish nomads • Formed military might, leadership of late Abbassid state • Indian Influences • Purdah and harem borrowed from Hindus • "Hindi numerals," which Europeans called "Arabic numerals" • Greek Influences • Muslims philosophers especially liked Plato and Aristotle; Greek math • Effort of harmonizing two traditions met resistance from Sufis