The Stage Approach

1. The Stage Approach ...Draw and describe a model of the stage approach to information processing to learning, giving original examples as to how you as teacher could use this theory to structure the learning process to help students learn better. Developed by W. Huitt (1999)

2. Organism (O) Stimulus (S) Response (R) The Information Processing Approach The cognitive learning theory is represented as an S-O-R paradigm. The organism is treated as an active processor of information.

3. The Stage Approach One of the major issues in cognitive psychology is the study of memory. The stage theory proposes that information is processed and stored in 3 stages.

4. The Stage Approach

5. The Stage Approach In the behavioral model, an external stimulus either • is associated with a response as a result of contiguous placement; • elicits a naturally occurring response; • changes the probability a voluntary response will occur again.

6. The Stage Approach In the cognitive model, the learning process begins when an external stimulus activates a sensory receptor cell. This model shows an external stimulus activating a sensory receptor cell that results in the generation of a “sensory memory.”

7. The Stage Approach

8. The Stage Approach Sensory memory is affiliated with the transduction of energy (change from one energy from to another). The environment makes available a variety of sources of information (light, sound, smell, heat, cold, etc.), but the brain only understands electrical energy.

9. The Stage Approach The body has special sensory receptor cells that transduce (change from one form of energy to another) this external energy to something the brain can understand. In the process of transduction, a memory is created. This memory is very short (less than 1/2 second for vision; about 3 seconds for hearing).

10. The Stage Approach It is absolutely critical that the learner initially process (attend) to the information at this beginning stage in order to transfer it to the next one. Otherwise, according to the stage model of memory, the information is immediately forgotten.

11. The Stage Approach If the stimulus that activates a sensory receptor cell is attended to, it is combined with information stored in long-term memory, and brought into short-term memory.

12. The Stage Approach

13. The Stage Approach Short-term memory is sometimes called working memory (although recent research has demonstrated these are two separate issues) and relates to what we are thinking about at any given moment in time as well as what we have attended to in the recent past. In Freudian terms, this is working memory is called the conscious.

14. The Stage Approach Short-term memory is created by our paying attention to an external stimulus, an internal thought, or both. It will initially last somewhere around 15-30 seconds unless it is repeated (called maintenance or rote rehearsal), at which point it may be available for up to 20 minutes.

15. The Stage Approach The hypothalamus is a brain structure thought to be involved in this shallow processing of information. The frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex is the structure associated with working memory.

16. The Stage Approach For example, you are processing the words you read on the screen in your frontal lobes. However, if I ask, "What is your telephone number?" your brain immediately calls that from long-term memory and replaces what was previously there.

17. Miller (1956) gave the number as 7 + 2, but more recent research suggests the number may be more like 5 + 2 for most things we are trying to remember. Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97. The Stage Approach Another major limit on information processing in STM is in terms of the number of units that can be processed an any one time.

18. The Stage Approach There are three major concepts for getting information into STM: First, individuals are more likely to pay attention to a stimulus if it has an interesting feature. We are more likely to get an orienting response if this is present.

19. The Stage Approach There are three major concepts for getting information into STM: Second, individuals are more likely to pay attention if the stimulus activates a known pattern. To the extent we have students call to mind relevant prior learning before we begin our presentation, we can take advantage of this principle.

20. The Stage Approach There are three major concepts for getting information into STM: Third, because of the variability in how much individuals can work with (for some it may be three, for others seven) it is necessary to point out important information. If some students can only process three units of information at a time, we need to make certain it is the most important three.

21. The Stage Approach There are two major concepts for retaining information in STM: • organization • repetition

22. The Stage Approach There are four major types of organization that are most often used in instructional design: Classification by category or concept (e.g., the components of the teaching/learning model); Component (part/whole)

23. The Stage Approach There are four major types of organization that are most often used in instructional design: Chronological; cause/effect; building to climax (e.g., baking a cake, reporting on a research study Sequential

24. The Stage Approach There are four major types of organization that are most often used in instructional design: Central unifying idea or criteria (e.g., most important principles of instruction for boys and girls, appropriate management strategies for middle school and high school students) Relevance

25. The Stage Approach There are four major types of organization that are most often used in instructional design: Relational words or phrases used to indicate qualitative change over time (e.g., stages in Piaget's theory of cognitive development or Erikson's stages of socioemotional development) Transitional (connective)

26. The Stage Approach A related issue to organization is the concept of chunking or the grouping into pieces of data into units. For example, the letters "d b e" constitute three units of information while the word "bed" represents one unit even though it is composed of the same number of letters.

27. The Stage Approach A related issue to organization is the concept of chunking or the grouping into pieces of data into units. Chunking is a major technique for getting and keeping information in short-term memory; it is also a type of elaboration that will help get information into long-term memory.

28. The Stage Approach Repetition or rote rehearsal is a technique we all use to try to "learn" something. However, in order to be effective this must be done after forgetting begins. Researchers advise that the learner should not immediately repeat the content (or skill), butwait a few minutes and then repeat.

29. The Stage Approach Remember that learning is defined as “the relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior potential) as a result of experience or practice. Until information is processed into long-term memory, learning has not occurred.

30. The Stage Approach In Freudian terms, long-term memory is also called preconscious and unconscious memory. Preconscious means that the information is relatively easily recalled (although it may take several minutes or even hours) while unconscious refers to data that is not available during normal consciousness.

31. The Stage Approach It is preconscious memory that is the focus of the study of long-term memory in cognitive psychology, although the levels-of-processing theory acknowledges that there is much we "know" that is not easily accessed. The two processes most likely to move information into long-term memory are elaboration and distributed practice (referred to as periodic review in the direct instruction model).

32. The Stage Approach There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the teaching/ learning process: Imaging Creating a mental picture

33. The Stage Approach There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the teaching/ learning process: Ideas or things to be remembered are connected to objects located in a familiar location Method of loci--(locations)

34. The Stage Approach There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the teaching/ learning process: Ideas or things to be remembered are connected to specific words (e.g., one-bun, two-shoe, three-tree, etc.) Pegword method

35. The Stage Approach There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the teaching/ learning process: Information to be remember is arranged in a rhyme (e.g., 30 days hath September, April, June and November, etc Rhyming (songs, phrases)

36. The Stage Approach There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the teaching/ learning process: The first letter of each word in a list is used to make a sentence (the sillier, the better) Initial letter

37. The Stage Approach In summary, the three processes of the stage approach are very similar to that postulated by the levels-of-processing approach: • Attention (process to STM) • Repetition (maintain in STM) • Elaboration (process to LTM)

38. The Stage Approach A major distinction is the focus of the model: • Placement into memory (stage approach) • Retrieval from memory (levels-of-processing)

39. The Stage Approach The parallel distributed processing and connectionistic models focus more on the organization of knowledge which is covered in the next presentation.