Introduction to the Study of Grammar

1. Introduction to the Study of Grammar BA, engelsk 1. Lexicon and Morphology tt

2. The components of language Meaning • A language is a system of cognitive procedures for • Assigning a Meaning to a sequence of Sounds • - Producing a sequence of Sounds to express a Meaning Sound

3. Meaning Grammar Phonetics Phonology Syntax Semantics Morphology Lexicon Pragmatics Sound The components of language study

4. The notion of a word • Words and sentences • Classification of words: Parts of Speech, or Wordclasses • Morphology: the study of the structure of words The Lexicon and Morphology

5. Words h i g h about the rank books reading English that bookmakers’ writers write royalty on nowadays lists

6. Words and Wordforms about books bookmakers’ English high lists nowadays on rank reading royalty that the write writers

7. Words make sentences… that writers nowadays write the books about English royalty rank high on bookmakers’ reading lists

8. Words make sentences… writers nowadays write about books English royalty that rank high the on bookmakers’ reading lists

9. Word make sentences…. books bookmakers’ about writers that write English nowadays rank royalty high on the reading lists

10. Words make sentences… English royalty nowadays lists writers that write about bookmakers’ reading high on rank the books

11. … and sometimes Non-sentences bookmakers’ that about rank nowadays books English royalty high writers on the reading lists write

12. Morphology describes the rules by which morphemes combine into words Lexicon The words of English Rules Syntax describes the rules by which words combine into sentences

13. Proper Name (PN) Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) (Adverb) Pronoun (Pro) Determiner (Det) Particle (Prt) Preposition (P) Conjunction (Conj) (Adverb (Adv)) Auxiliary (Aux) Words and word classes Closed Open

14. that that writers writers nowadays nowadays write write the the books books about about English English royalty royalty rank rank high high on on bookmakers’ bookmakers’ reading reading lists lists N V A Adv P on high about nowadays lists Det Pro royalty rank writers reading bookmakers’ that write English the books

15. nowadays nowadays high high royalty royalty lists lists English English writers writers that that write write about about bookmakers’ bookmakers’ reading reading on on rank rank the the books books N V A Adv P rank on on high high reading about about nowadays nowadays lists lists books lists Det Pro royalty royalty high rank rank writers writers reading reading bookmakers’ bookmakers’ that that write write English English the the books books

16. Criteria for classifying words • Formal: e.g. English adverbs end in -ly - but not vice versa: manly, kindly and cowardly are adjectives • Semantic (meaning): e.g. Nouns refer to things - but not always: love, kindness and air do not • Distribution (syntactic use in sentences): • the best, but sometimes odd, e.g. to classify books as an • adjective in books rank

17. Morphology, terms Word: Lexeme, word-form, grammatical word - The shooter’s shots shot out like shooting stars Affix: prefix, suffix - The upshot of the shooting was upsetting Base: root, stem

18. Lexemes Word-forms Grammatical words SHOOT (V) shoot shoot (inf) shoot (pres) shoots shoots (pres) shot shot (past) shot (prf.ptc) shooting shooting (pres. ptc.) shooting (gerund) SHOT (N) shot shot (sg) shots shots (pl) shot’s (gen. sg.) shots’ (gen. pl) SHOOTER (N) shooter shooter (sg) shooters shooters (pl) shooter’s (gen. sg) shooters’ (gen. pl)

19. Base Suffix un touch able s Prefix Suffix Affixes: prefix and suffix

20. Stem/base Base Root/base un able s Root = irreducible kernel of a word-form Base = kernel of a word-form to which any affix may be added Stem = base when added affixes are inflectional Root, stem, base touch

21. Derivational: turns a lexeme into another lexeme Class-maintaining: -dom: king (N) + dom = kingdom (N) Class-changing: -ly: king (N) + -ly = kingly (A) Morphology, types Inflectional: turns a lexeme into a grammatical word Conversion: love (N) - love (V)

22. Inflectional Morphemes Derivational Morphemes Inflection & Derivation Wordform Base Morpheme {writ} + {Ø} (= nil) write writes {writ} + {-s} {writ} + {-en} written wrote {writ} + {past} {-ing} writing {writ} + writ {writ} + {-Ø} writs {writ} + {-s} {writ} + {-er} writer

23. Nouns: {-Ø | -s} the category of Number {-Ø | -s} the category of Case Verbs: {-Ø | -s} the category of Number the category of Person {{-Ø | -s} | -ed} the category of Tense {-Ø | have + -en} the category of Aspect {-Ø | be + -ing} {-Ø | be + -en} the category of Voice Adjectives: {-Ø | -er | -est} the category of Comparison Inflectional morphology, overview

24. foot – feet goose – geese man – men woman – women knife – knives wife – wives … mouse – mice child – children ox – oxen The Inflection of NounsNumber Irregulars Regulars N - N+{-s} One plural morpheme {-s}, but three regular variants: /bɔɪ/ – /bɔɪz/ /hæt/ – /hæts/ /bʌs/ – /bʌsɪz/

25. V V-ed V-en work work-ed work-ed break broke brok-en The Inflection of Verbs Verbs have three main forms: Base (V), Past Tense (V-ed), Perfect Participle (V-en) Several types of irregular verbs (see any textbook) NB. The V-ed form is the past tense form of any regular V The V-en form is the Perfect Participle form from the type of irregular V represented by break In addition, any V may take the endings -s and -ing

26. V V-s V-ed/-en V-ing work work-s work-ed work-ing Infinitive Imperative Present Tense 1st & 2nd P sg Present Tense 1st, 2nd, & 3rd P pl Present 3rd P sg Past Tense (-ed) Perfect Participle (-en) Present Participle Gerund The Inflection of Verbs Regulars Forms: Functions:

27. Forms: A A-er A-est great great-er great-est Functions: Positive Comparative Superlative The Inflection of Adjectives Irregulars good – better – best bad – worse – worst far – further – furthest (also regular) …. Regulars (only ’short’ adjectives; see any textbook)

28. Compounds - A lexeme that contains more than one root There are three main types, depending on their meaning: Endocentric: beehive (a kind of hive), armchair (a kind of chair) Appositional: maidservant (both a maid and a servant) Exocentric: redskin (not a kind of skin), highbrow (not a kind of brow)