Social Structure

Social Structure Chapter 4

Building Blocks of Social Structure • Social structure gives society its enduring characteristics and make patterns of human behavior predictable. • Social structure is the network of interrelated statuses and roles that guide human interaction. • A status is a socially defined position in a group or society. • A role is the expected behavior of someone of a particular status. • Every individual in a society has a status. • Example: • Father • Wife • African American

Building Blocks of Social Structure Ascribed status • This type of status is assigned to an individual on the basis of the person’s inherited traits or when they reach a certain age. • Example • Teenager vs Adult • White vs Black • Male vs Female Achieved status • This type of status is assigned based on an individual’s efforts such as skills, speech, knowledge, and/or abilities. • Example • Basketball players • Billionaire

Building Blocks of Social Structure Master status • This type of status plays the greatest role in shaping a person’s life and determining his/her social identity. • Master status can be ascribed or achieved. • A person’s master status changes over the course of his/her life. • Examples: • Teenagers master status is typically that of a student or an athlete • Adult master status is typically that of one’s occupation

Building Blocks of Social Structure • Roles • Statuses serve as social categories and roles are the component of social structure that bring statuses to life. • You may play several roles for example: • At home you may be a son or daughter • At school you are a student, athlete, friend, ect…

Building Blocks of Social Structure Reciprocal roles • Most roles you perform have reciprocal roles. • Reciprocal roles are corresponding roles that define the patterns of interaction between related statuses. • For example one cannot fill the role of husband, if someone else does not perform the role of a wife

Building Blocks of Social Structure • Role expectations are behaviors expected of a person performing a role • Examples • Doctors care for patients • Parents provide security for children • Police officers uphold the law

Building Blocks of Social Structure • Role performance is the actual role behavior. • This does not always match expected behavior expected by society. • Example: • Some parents mistreat their children • Police officer may break the law

Building Blocks of Social Structure • Even within a single status, there are many interrelated roles to perform. • Sociologists call the different roles attached to a single status a role set. • Role conflict occurs when fulfilling the role expectations of another status. • To be a good employee you must go to work, but to be a good parent you must stay home to care for your sick child. • Role strain occurs when a person has difficulty meeting the role expectations of a single status • The boss must maintain the morale of workers while getting them to work long periods over time

Building Blocks of Structure • When statuses and roles are organized to satisfy one or more of the basic needs of society, the group is called a social institution. • The basic needs of society include: • Physical support • Emotional support • Transmitting knowledge • Producing goods and services • Maintaining social control The major social institutions include: • The family • The economy • Politics • Education • Religion • Media • Medicine • science

Types of Interaction • When you play a roles, you interact with others. • Some interactions help stabilize the social structure. • Some promote change. • Examples: • Exchange • Competition • Conflict • Cooperation • Accommodation

Types of Interaction Exchange • When people interact to receive a reward or return, an exchange has taken place. • Almost all daily interaction involves exchange • Examples: dating, family, friends,… • Reciprocity is the idea that if you do something for someone, that person owes you something in return. • Example: getting an allowance for doing chores. • The exchange theory states that people are motivated by self-interests in their interactions with people • However, if the cost outweighs the reward people often end the relationship

Types of Interaction Competition • Competition occurs when two or more individuals /groups oppose each other to a achieve a goal that only one can attain. • Examples • Valedictorian • Super Bowl Champions • Some sociologist consider competition to be the cornerstone of capitalist economic systems and the democratic form of government. • However, competition can cause conflict, stress, inequality, and a lack of cooperation in social relationships

Types of Interaction • Conflict is the deliberate attempt to control a person by force, to oppose someone, or to harm another person. • Unlike competition, conflict has few rules of conduct • Examples: • Snubbing a classmate • Killing an enemy • Four sources of conflict have been identified: • Wars • Disagreements within groups • Legal dispute • Clashes of ideology • Religion • politics

Types of Interaction • Although we tend to think of conflict as something negative, it can actually serve useful purposes such as: • reinforcing group boundaries • Strengthening group loyalty by focusing attention to an outside theat. • Social change

Types of Interaction • Cooperation occurs when two or more people/groups work together to achieve a goal that will benefit both sides. • Examples: • Sports teams • NAFTA • United Nations

Types of Interaction • Accommodationis the balance between conflict and cooperation. • Example: You pay the owner of a motel $60 to accommodate you by letting you stay in their facility • Accommodation comes in many forms such as • Compromise • Truce • Mediation • Arbitration

Types of Societies • Role behavior often takes place in groups. • Groups are a set of people who interact on the basis of shared expectations and who poses some degree of common identity. • The largest most complex groups are societies. • Subsistence strategies is the way a society uses technology to provide the needs of its members. • Preindustrial • Industrial • Postindustrial

Types of societies • Preindustrial society is based on food production. • Pre-industrial societies are subdivided according to their level of technology and their method of producing food • Hunting and gathering • Pastoral • Horticulture • Agriculure

Types of societies Hunting and gathering societies • This type of society gathers food daily • Wild plants • Wild animals • Nomadic • They move around in search of food • Typically around 60 people • Statuses are relatively equal • Decisions made via agreement • Family is the main social unit

Types of societies Pastoral societies • These societies rely on a domesticated herd of animals to meet their food needs. • Nomadic • Move herds from pasture to pasture • Division of labor • The specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities • Producing • tools • Weapons • jewelry

Types of societies Horticultural societies • These societies have some level of technology and complexity similar to pastoral societies. • Slash and burn method • Human labor • Simple tools • Villages • 30 people to as many as 3,000 • Specialized roles • Shamans (religious leaders • Inequalities among people • Hereditary craftsmanship

Types of societies Agricultural societies • In these types of societies animals are used to pull plows in the fields. • Technological innovations allow agriculturalists to plant more crops than human labor alone • Irrigation • Tractors • More crops = larger population • Specialized roles leads to developments of cities • Power becomes more centralized

Types of societies Agricultural societies continued • Leaders in agricultural societies • Build armies • Build infrastructure • Efficient infrastructure = trade • Barter is the exchange of a good or service and is used to facilitate trade • System of writing to keep government records • Sharp status differences • Landowners • Wealth and power • Peasants • Labor force

Types of societes Industrial societies • In these societies emphasis shifts from the production of food to the production of manufactured goods. • Due to changes in production methods • Use of machines rather than human/animal labor • Industrialization has had the following effects: • increase food production, thus increasing the population • Economic changes • Agriculture to factory/industrial work

Types of societies Industrialization continued • Urbanization is the concentration of populations in cities. • Nature of work changes from the preindustrial societies • Craftsmen replaced by unskilled workers • Machines replace people • Compulsory education • Religion is challenged by science • More freedom to compete for social positions • Ascribed status to achieved status

Types of societies Postindustrial societies • In these types of societies the economy is involved in providing and services. • Many social changes result from transition from industrial to postindustrial society. • Higher standard of living • Improved wages • Emphasis on science and education • Technological advances • Personal fullfillment • Belief in rights • Social equality and democracy

Types of societies Contrasting societies • According to Emile Durkheim used the concepts of mechanical and organic solidarity to describe social relationships in preindustrial and industrial societies. • Mechanical solidarity is what held together preindustrial societies. • People share the same values and perform the same tasks • Organic solidarity happens when societies become more complex • Impersonal relationships occur with increased job specialization • Societal relations are based on needs rather than values

Groups within societies • Groups • A group has four major features • It must have two or more features • Interaction among members • Members must have shared expectations • Members must possess some sense of common identity

Groups within societies Interaction, shared expectations, and a common identity distinguish a group from an aggregate or social category. • Aggregate is when people gather in the same place at the same time, but lack organization of or lasting patterns of interactions. • Social Category is a means of classifying people according to a shared trait or common status. • Women • Teenagers • LGBT • Americans

Groups within societies • Some groups are very small and other are huge. • Thee smallest possible group is a dyad or group with two members. • If one member leaves the group, the group ends • A three person group is called a triad • A single person can not disband this group • A small group consists of 15 people or less • In groups of more than 15 there is a breakup of the group into smaller groups.

Groups within societies • Some groups meet everyday while others may meet sporadically • Examples: • Everyday – families • Sporadically – monthly taco club

Groups within societies The organization of a group can be either formal or informal. • Formal Group • The structure, goal, and activities of the group are clearly defined. • Example: SGA = rules and structured meetings. • Informal Group • No official structure or established rules of conduct • Example: Your group of friends = no rules or established meetings

Groups within societies • We are all members of different types of groups. The most common groups recognized by sociologists include: • Primary groups • Secondary groups • Reference groups • In-groups • Out-groups • E-communities

Groups within societies • The easiest way to classify to classify groups is to degree of intimacy that occurs between the members. • Primary Groups • A small group of people who interact over a relatively long period of time and on a direct and personal basis. • Families • Secondary Groups • Group interaction is impersonal and temporary • Casual and limited in personal ivolvment • coworkers

Groups within societies • People usually perform their social roles and judge their own behaviors according to standards set by a particular group. • Reference groups are any group with whom individuals identify and whose attitudes and values are adopted. • Reference groups can have positive and negative effects on behavior. • Example: • Group of friends • school clubs • occupations

Groups within societies • All groups have boundaries such as methods of distinguishing between member and non-members. • In-group • The group a member belongs to and identifies with. • Members must: • Separate themselves from other groups • View themselves positively • Compete with outgroups • Out-group • Any group a person does not belong to or identify with.

Groups within societies • E-communities are groups of people who interact with on another regularly on the internet. • Members exhibit behavior similar to those of primary groups. • They argue • Exchange ideas • Share intimate details of their lives

Groups within societies • Social networks are the web of relationships that is formed by the sum total of a person’s interactions with other people. • Unlike groups, social networks don’t have clear boundaries and do not give rise to a common sense of identity. • Example: • Knowing the right person to get a job or not.

Groups within society Group functions • Groups must define their boundaries so that members can tell who belongs and who does not. • The group may use things such as: • Symbols • Uniforms • Gestures • language

Groups within societies • Groups must also select leaders. • A leader is a person who influence the attitude and opinions of others. • Examples of leaders: • Executive chef • CEO • Presidents • Captain • Priests

Groups within societies There are two types of leaders: • Instrumental leaders • Task oriented • Example: Football Coach • Expressive leaders • Emotion oriented • Example: Cheerleaders

Groups within societies • Groups also need to perform the related functions of setting goals, assigning tasks, and making decisions. • To achieve these goals, groups must assign tasks to members. • Groups must also control their members behavior. • Sanctions are used to ensure conformity • Conformity is linked to the importance that people attach to a group.

The Structure of Formal Organizations • Formal organization is the term to describe large, complex secondary groups that have been established to achieve a specific goals. • Examples: • Schools • Government • Youth organizations • Bureaucracies are the most structured of formal organizations. • Authority structure that operates to specific rules and procedures. • They rationally organize groups to complete a set of goals • Rationalization is subjugating every feature of human behavior to calculation, measurement, and control. The Industrial Revolution helped with rationality

The Structure of Formal Organizations Max Weber’s Model of Bureaucracies • Division of Labor • Specialists perform specific duties • Ranking of Authority • Workers report to supervisors • Employment based on formal applications • Specific qualifications for the job (education, experience, ect) • Rules and regulations • Procedures that identify the exact responsibilities and authority of each person on the staff. • Specific lines of promotion and advancement • Job security • Senority

The Structure of Formal Organizations • The structure of formal organizations can include • government agencies • Large business corporations • Voluntary associations • Voluntary associations are typically nonprofit organizations formed to purse a common interest. • Charities • Political interest groups

The Structure of Formal Organizations • Informal structures based on strong primary relationships may exist within bureaucracies. • The President of the US playing Golf with foreign leaders • Sometimes informal structure occurs among workers. • Ridicule or ostracizing others who don’t conform.

The Structure of Formal Organizations • Weber argued that bureaucracies create order by clearly defining job tasks and rewards. • So why do bureaucracies sometimes less effective than Weber suggests? • They lose sight of their goals • Abandoning it’s original purpose • Tendency to result in oligarchies (few rule the many) • Tendency to of all organizations to promote their own interests over the interests of the organization. • The iron law of oligarchy is the tendency of organizations to become increasingly dominated by smaller groups.

Social Structure