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Discover the fundamental concepts of evolution and ecology, including natural selection, adaptation, genetic drift, and geographic variation. Learn why evolution is crucial for species survival and explore how populations evolve over generations. Dive deep into the role of genetic variation, ecological niches, and the impact of environmental conditions on species diversity. Uncover the mechanisms shaping populations and the intriguing world of sexual selection in evolutionary processes.
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Lecture 2 Evolution and Ecology ‘Nothing in biology makes sense, except in the light of evolution.’ Dobzhansky
Ecosystem Structure and Evolution • Niche: functional role an organism plays in an ecosystem…. • ‘the sum total of all activities and relationships in which individuals of a species engage as they secure resources necessary to survive and reproduce’… job or role in an ecosystem • Adaptation: ‘a genetically determined characteristic that … improves fitness • Fitness: the ability to leave reproductively viable offspring
What is evolution? • Why is it important for species to evolve? • ‘Evolution is a population thing’: • Individuals do not evolve • occurs over generations in populations. • ‘descent with modification’ (see page 645)
Evolutionary thought: Charles Darwin/Alfred Russell Wallace Thomas Malthus: social philosopher - Charles Lyell: geologist/natural philosopher
Natural selection: Selection in a genetically variable population for those with traits which favor survival and reproduction: 1. Over reproduction 2. Struggle for existence – competition for resources 3. Differential survival and reproduction Fitness: ‘the ability to survive and leave reproductively viable offspring 4. Genetic variation Adaptation: a trait that is possessed by an individual enables an enhanced ability to survive and reproduce
Evolution has a genetic basis: Genes are heritable units that determine traits Variation in genes occurs naturally: due to mutation Alleles Gene Pool: the total collection of gene/alleles within a population Changes in the gene pool changes in a population
Shaping of Populations • Selection for one extreme • Selection for the ‘average’ • Selection for two extremes (bimodal)
Stabilizing Selection: average is favored • Goldenrod gall size – formed by fly • Small: attacked by wasp • Large: attacked by birds
Species have become specialists feeding on seed providing optimal energy efficiency • Disruptive Selection: Specialist forms develop
Adaptive Radiation: Single ancestral from give rise to multiple ‘specialist’ forms
Sexual selection: an aspect of natural selection • A process in which (usually) females select amongst potential mates • Example - Peacocks: female selects males with large, bright, colorful tails- why? • Handicap hypothesis • Operates in plants too – competition for pollinators various mechanisms to lure pollen transferring animals
Sexual selection – an aspect of natural selection: includes two aspects • Intrasexual: males compete - selection leads to evolution of structures used in combat with other males • Deer’s antlers or ram’s horns, bright colors, etc. • selective pressure is for ability to compete successfully with members of same sex • Intersexual selection- Females select amongst winners • agents of selection • Selection based on various cues – appearance and behavior • goal (evolutionary sense) select mate with best fitness
Female peahens prefer to mate with males with greater number of eyespots in their tail feathers
Evolution without natural selection - Genetic drift: • Genetic drift refers to fluctuations in allele frequencies in a population arising from chance events. • Most pronounced in small populations resulting from • Founding events • Natural disasters • High levels of predation - bottlenecks • Random: population not selected based on adaptations
Other processes leading to evolution: • Genetic drift: • Changes in allele frequencies across generations due to chance events: • Random disturbances • Small populations • Founder effects
Natural Selection Can Result in Genetic Differentiation • The geographic range of a species can result in phenotypic variation of neighboring populations • A wider geographic range includes a broader range of environmental conditions • In general, the greater the distance between populations, the more pronounced the phenotypic differences
Geographic Variation in Species • Ecotype: Subpopulation of a species adapted to a specific environment • Cline: measurable change in a species characteristics over an environmental gradient Variation in white tailed deer – larger animals at higher latitudes in NA
Genetic Variation of Ecotypes • An ecotype is a population adapted to its unique (often abrupt) local environmental conditions • Yarrow (Achilleamillefolium) response to altitude • How much variation observable in the field is due to genetic variation and how much is due to impact of environment (phenotypic plasticity)? • Common Garden Experiment • Seed collected from plants of same species growing in different environments grow in same location(s) (p 85)
Geographic isolates result when gene flow among subpopulations is prevented • The isolation is rarely complete, and so these isolated subpopulations are often classified as subspecies because of a set of unique characteristics • Example: Ensatina spp. of California – a ‘ring species‘ http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/devitt_02
Summary: • Evolution involves heritable differences amongst individuals in a population which ultimately impact fitness • Organisms become ‘tailor made’ for their niche within an environment by processes of evolution • Characteristics of individuals making up current populations are a product of natural selection in ancestral populations