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Dynamic Psychology Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
“A man like me cannot live without a hobby-horse, a consuming passion -- in Shiller’s words a tyrant. I have found my tyrant, and in his service I know no limits. My tyrant is psychology; it has always been my distant, beckoning goal and now, since I have hit on the neuroses, it has come so much the nearer.” (Sigmund Freud, letter to Wilhelm Fleiss, 1895) “I hope that Freud and his pupils will push their ideas to their utmost limits, so that we may learn what they are. They can’t fail to throw light on human nature, but I confess that he made on me personally the impression of a man obsessed by fixed ideas. I can make nothing in my own case with his dream theories, and obviously “symbolism” is a most dangerous method.” (William James, letter to Theodore Flournoy, 1909) Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Depth Psychology • The libido theory • Shift to ego psychology with a shift towards defenses and Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety • Psychoanalytic Technique • Culture and religion Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
The General Theory • Psychical apparatus (sensory to motor, primary processes and secondary processes) • Constancy and the pleasure principle (defenses) • Id-Ego-Superego • Instinct theory and its vicissitudes (instincts and struggles) Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Freud As a Functionalist • Darwinian -- instincts • Helmholtzian (conservation of energy) • Associationistic (translated Collected Works of J. Stuart Mill) • Developmental • Materialistic -- mechanistic -- reductionistic • Teleological Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
The Cases • “The intention is to furnish a psychology that shall be a natural science; to represent psychical processes as quantitatively determinate states of specifiable material particles” in the Project Towards a Scientific Psychology • Case of Anna O: Bertha Pappenheim: the talking cure (Joesph Breuer) • The Schreber Case: paranoia and homosexuality • Little Hans: The Oedipal Conflict • And so on Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Looking Again at the Cases: • Case of Anna O: Bertha Pappenheim: the talking cure • Brain infection: tuberculosis encephalitis (probably contracted from her father) • The Schreber Case: paranoia and homosexuality • Father’s constraining, constricting contraptions • Little Hans: The Oedipal Conflict • A case of conditioned emotional response and response to father’s threats?? Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Some of the Obvious Sources of Freud’s Ideas Rapaport, D. (1959). The structure of psychoanalytic theory: A systematizing attempt. Psychology: A Study of a Science. S. Koch. New York, McGraw-Hill. Vol. 3. Formulations of the Person and the Social Context: 55-183. • Darwin (1809-1832): psychology based on instincts with special reference to aggressive and love instincts. (Descent in 1859) • Freud attended Brentano’s lectures (intentionality, instinctual drives). • Herbart’s Associationism. (perhaps through Meynert. Meynert’s amenisa: content of hallucinations prototype for Freud’s wish-fulfillment.) Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Some of the Obvious Sources of Freud’s Ideas • Freud (and Fliess) never let go of Fechner’s conservation principle. • Helmholtz influence: • Determinism. • Central position of pleasure-pain principle (and the primary process) – patterned on the concept of entropy. • Reality principle (and secondary process) – patterned on the principle of least action. • “economic principle” – patterned on the principle of conservation. Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Some of the Obvious Sources of Freud’s Ideas • Influence of John Hughlings Jackson’s neurology: • Nervous system as a series of psychological organizations (instances, structures) hierarchically and topographically superimposed upon one another. • Associative networks organized superficially by contiguity but fundamentally driven by drives. • Concepts of excitation and inhibition. Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Some of the Obvious Sources of Freud’s Ideas • Karl Marx (1818-1883). • G. Von Schubert, Carl Carus (1789-1869), Von Hartmann, Schopenhauer, F. Nietzche • Took idea of energy from Nietzsche, who was impressed, as a scientist enthusiast, that energy had become the fundamental concept in physics. • And from Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), the pessimist, who was a hero of Nietzsche's. Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Carl Carus (1789-1869) • Physician and painter • Wrote Psyche (1846) • Development of soul (mind) from unconscious to conscious • Three levels of consciousness • General absolute unconscious – inaccessible • Partial absolute – in process of becoming • Relative or secondary unconscious • Redone in Eduard Von Hartmann’sPhilosophy of the Unconscious (1869) Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) • Behind appearances there is a non-benign reality -- the “it” the “will” [Freud’s Id] that just wants “more” • Every act is one of procreation or destruction • Everything in our phenomenal world is a manifestation of this perverse will • Human culture is just one more experiment of the will • Art, religion, science, philosophy are merely sublimation of the will -- still acting in its service - all sublimation of sex and violence • Suicide is not the answer because that is just total acquiescence to the will Freud said: “We have unwittingly steered our course into the harbour of Schopenhauer’s philosophy” Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Nietzschean (1844-1900) Concepts • Dionysian and Apollonian (Primary and secondary function) • Self-deception of the conscious by the unconscious • Vicissitudes of the instincts (combinations, conflicts, displacements, etc.) • Energy load of representations • Self-destructive urges in man • Origin of conscience and morals by turning inward of aggressive drives • Origin of civilization in the repression of instincts • Attack on religion Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Freud’s Quest for Fame: Zeitgeist or Good Marketing? • Six years in Brücke’s lab looking through a microscope (wrote a paper viewed by his advocates as pre-dating the neuron theory) • The Cocaine period (accused of unleashing on mankind the “third scourge” • Railroad PTS • Missing fame as a neurologist (On Aphasia, agnosia) • Josef Breuer (Anno O, papers, Studies on Hysteria) • By 1894, published own therapeutic method -- talk therapy, the psychoanalytic method • Wilhelm Fleiss • Project Towards a Scientific Psychology • The Vienna Circle Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Freud’s Poor Memory of the Interaction With His Colleagues (the Case of Railroad PTS) • Standard account (Freud’s biography): “Freud presented a paper on male hysteria before the Society of Physicians on October 15, 1886. This paper was received with incredulity and hostility. Freud was challenged to present a case of male hysteria to the Society, and though he met this challenge on November 26, of the same year, the reception was cool, and this was the starting point of Freud’s life-long feud with the Viennese medical world.” Actually, in Freud’s autobiography he says that they applauded him after the second case. Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
What Really Happened .. .. .. The Background (the Case of Railroad PTS) What was “male hysteria?”: lots of railroad injuries. – “railroad spine” and “railroad brain” was in vogue – like whiplash. In England a Dr. Page called it functional and hysterical. Hemianesthesia and depression was a symptom – Page’s premise was widely accepted in England and the US – two German neurologists questioned this and said the symptoms were more severe than in hysterical patients. In France Charcot, said the symptoms could be produced with hypnosis, and the diagnosis increased in frequency in France. The debate was not over the existence of “male hysteria” but over the post-traumatic train paralysis being male hysteria. – now “male hysteria” was being extended to post-traumatic functional disturbance. Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
What Freud Presented (the Case of Railroad PTS) • Freud reported on Charcot’s beliefs that male hysteria had nothing to do with sexual organs, and that he discriminated between grande hysterie (with specific stigmata, etc.) and petite hysterie. And he then presented a case – one of Charcot’s -- of an accident with paralysis in one arm and other stigmata. Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
What Was the Society’s Response? (The Case of Railroad PTS) • One discussant: a neurologist said other similar cases described years earlier. • Meynert, said these cases had been repeatedly observed. • The chair said there was nothing new here. • No record of challenging Freud to bring forth another case. Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
In Conclusion: (the Case of Railroad PTS) • Basically Freud returned and reported a case of no surprise, nothing new and they felt Freud 1) did not report something new and it was Charcot’s case not his, violating the rules, 2) Freud seemed to just accept Charcot’s explanations without realizing the complexity of the issue, 3) it irritated them that Freud attributed old stuff to Charcot. • No evidence that he was challenged to produce a second case. But Freud felt compelled [probably because of the rejection in the first case]; he presented at the next meeting an ambiguous case. There was no discussion of it and the next presentations went on. Freud said, in his autobiography, that the second case was applauded. • Later the controversy waned and the incidence of male hysteria diminished. Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Wilhem Fliess • An ear nose and throat specialist • correspondence between nose mucosa and the genital organs • bisexuality of human beings • double periodicity: 28-day feminine cycle and a 23-day masculine cycle Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Fliess Events • He treated Freud’s nose • 1894, Freud has a heart condition, Fliess tells him to stop smoking • Freud’s patient (Emma) sent to Fliess, who accidentally leaves a piece of iodine gauze in her nose • September 21, 1897: wrote Fliess -- the universal tales of seduction by his patient’s fathers were fantasies Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Freud’s Self-analysis • He has self-doubts, a “little” hysteria • An ugly old nanny at root of earliest sexual experience • Relationship with one-year-old nephew at root of neurotic relationships with friends • Sexual libido towards mother aroused at 2 1/2 • Jealously towards little brother who died • Assumed love of mother and jealousy of father were universal phenomena (used Oedipal and Hamlet references) • by Nov, 1897 wrote self-analysis stagnating -- preoccupied with sexual zones, particularly anal memories and fantasies Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
End of Freud’s Neurosis (?) • Publication of Interpretation of Dreams marked end of his anxiety neurosis • He distanced himself from Fliess • He overcame an inhibition that prevented him from visiting Rome and finally spent 12 days in the city of his dreams Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
What Was This All About? • Adversaries -- analysis is just an expression of Freud’s own neurosis • Advocates (Jones) -- the self-analysis was a heroic feat necessary to reveal the abysses of the unconscious • Ellenberger: Fliess, the neurosis, and elaboration of psychoanalysis is a “creative illness” (Fechner, C. J. Jung) Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Creative Illness • Succeeds period of intense preoccupation with an idea and the search for a certain truth • Polymorphous: depression, neurosis, psychosomatic, psychosis (alternating periods) • But preoccupying thread never lost • Termination rapid and exhilarating • Attacks on others (Freud attacked everyone, despite the tolerance shown by his medical colleagues) Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Was Freud Rejected? • He was tolerated despite his vicious attacks (Freud, in his autobiography speaks of an unspecified “ten years of isolation”). • His practice was lucrative. • International Psychological Congress, 1896 recognized as foremost authority on hysteria. • He was listed in the Who’s Who of the medical profession. • He remained a member of the Vienna medical societies, his papers and books were published, he attracted a cadre, etc. • In 1910 the Wed Psychoanalytic Society had outgrown his place and became the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Sources of Freud’s Theory of Hysteria • Josef Breuer and the Case of Anna O (Bertha Papenheim) • Current theories of hysteria • Breuer’s theory of hysteria • Richer’s concepts of grande hysteria • Charcot’s explanations • Piere Janet’s “tracing of a chain of unconscious fixed ideas” in hysterical patients • Herbart’s associationism (Freud had used a text by Lindner outlining this theory) and he translated J. S. Mill’s Collected Works • Benedikt’s emphasis on the importance of fantasy life, and the importance of early sexual trauma in hysteria • Contemporary interest in childhood sexuality • “resistance” and “transference” were discussed by “magnetists” and “hypnotists” • Freud added “defense” and integrated it all Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Benedikt’s Emphasis on the Importance of Fantasy Life, and the Importance of Early Sexual Trauma in Hysteria • In a footnote in Breuer and Freud’s Preliminary Communication • We have seen how Benedikt taught the importance of the secret life, daydreams, fantasies, suppressed wishes and ambitions, the importance of the sexual element in hysteria and other neuroses, and how he achieved brilliant psychotherapeutic cures by relieving the patients of their pathogenic secrets. Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Freud’s Contribution to Dream Theory • Manifest and latent content with simultaneous presence in past and present • Manifest content is a distortion of latent content resulting from repression by the censor • Free association as method of dream analysis • Use of dream analysis as psychoanalytic tool Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
The Project Towards a Scientific Psychology • Pribram, K., & Gill, M. M. (1976). Freud's Project Re-Assessed. New York: Basic Books. “One evening last week when I was hard at work, tormented with just that amount of pain that seems to be the best state to make my brain function, the barriers were suddenly lifted, the veil was drawn aside, and I had a clear vision from the details of the neuroses to the conditions that make consciousness possible. Everything seemed to connect up, the whole thing worked well together, and one had the impression that the thing was now really a machine and would soon go by itself. The three systems of the neurones, the free and bound state of Quantity, the primary and secondary processes, the main tendency and the compromise tendency of the nervous system, the two biological laws of attention and defense, the indications of Quality, Reality, and Thought, the (particular) position of the psychosexual group, the sexual determinant of repression, and finally the necessary conditions for consciousness as a function of perception: all that was perfectly clear, and still is. Naturally, I don’t know how to contain myself for pleasure.” (Freud, Letter to Wilhelm Fliess, 20 October, 1895) Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
A Neuronal – Associative Theory .. .. ..the nervous system, as inheritor of the general irritability of protoplasm, .. .. .. makes use of this Q[quantity of excitation in the neurons] which it has .. .. .. acquired, by giving off through a connecting path to the muscular mechanisms, and in that way keeps itself free from stimulus.. .. .. "The principle of inertia [p. 296] finds its expression in the hypothesis of a current passing from the cell's paths of conduction or processes [dendrites] to the axis-cylinder. A single neurone is thus a model of the whole nervous system with its dichotomy of structure, the axis-cylinder being the organ of discharge. The secondary function [of the nervous system], however, which calls for the accumulation of Q [P. 2971, is made possible by the assumption of resistances [emphasis ours] which oppose discharge; and the structure of neurones makes it probable that the resistances are to be located in the contacts [between one neurone and another], which in this way assume the value of barriers." (S.E., P. 298) Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Primary and Secondary Process In these two cases we must no doubt see the primary process in respect of judging, and we may assume that all secondary judging has come about through a mitigation of these Purely associative processes. (S.E., PP- 333-4) Further:... It [thought] must make no essential change in the facilitations created by the primary processes.... (S.E., p. 335) The real issue in making the distinction between primary and secondary processes thus does not rest on the basis of 'motor release of quantity'. Rather, the issue is whether quantity is transferred or held more or less constant in the service of a specific action: Thus the secondary process is a repetition of the original ... passage [of quantity], at a lower level, with smaller quantities. (SE., p. 334) It is an important fact that ... primary processes, are daily presented to us during sleep ... the precondition {for which] is a lowering of the endogenous load in the [nuclear neurons], which makes the secondary function superfluous. (SE., P. 336) Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
The Ego • .. .. ..an organization has been formed in whose presence interferes with passages [of quantity] .. .. .. this organization is called the ‘ego.’ Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
The Ego [and priming?] If we combine this account of the neurones with the conception of the Q theory, we arrive at the idea of a cathected neurone filled with a certain Q while at other times it may be empty. The principle of inertia finds its expression in the hypothesis of a current passing from the cell’s paths of conduction or processes [dendrites] to the axis-cylinder. (S.E., p. 298) It should be further suspected that an intense current of Q is not favorable to the generation of consciousness, since it . . . Attaches . . . To a comparatively quiet lingering, as it were, of the cathexis [Priming?] A single neuron is thus a model of the whole nervous system with its dichotomy of structure, the axis-cylinder being the organ of discharge. The secondary function [of the nervous system], however, which calls for the accumulation of Q, is made possible by the assumption of resistances which oppose discharge; and the structure of the neurones makes it probable that the resistances are all to be located in the contacts [between one neurone and another], which in this way assume the value of barriers. (S.E.,p. 298) If we want to reconcile the two, we arrive at the hypothesis of what is, as it were, a bound state in the neurone . . . (S.E., p. 368) The struggle between the established facilitations and the changing cathexes is characteristic of the secondary process of reproductive thought, in contrast to the primary sequence of association. (S.E., p. 329) Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
And Memory . . . It would seem, therefore, that neurones must be both influenced and also unaltered, unprejudiced. We cannot off-hand imagine an apparatus capable of such complicated functioning; the situation is accordingly saved by attributing the characteristic of being permanently influenced by excitation to one class of neurones, and, on the other hand, the unalterability -- the characteristic of being fresh for new excitations -- to another class . . . The theory of contact-barriers, if it adopts this solution, can express it in the following terms. There are two classes of neurones [1] those which allow Q to pass through as though they had no contact-barriers and which, accordingly, after each passage of excitation are in the same state as before, and [2] those who contact-barriers make themselves felt, so that they only allow Q to pass through with difficulty or partially. The latter class may, after each excitation, be in a different state from before and they thus afford a possibility of representing memory. Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Freud’s Cell Assembly Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Hebb’s Cell Assembly Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Josef Breuer’s comment on the hypersensitivity of the Jews in Austria-Hungary after the transition to equal rights (1894), prior to the rise of anti-Semitism “Our epidermis has almost become too sensitive, and I would wish that we Jews had a firm consciousness of our own value, quiet and half indifferent to the judgement of the others, rather than this wavering, easily insulted, hyper-sensitive point d’honneur. Be that as it may, that point d’honneur is certainly a product of “Assimilation.” Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Neo-Freudian Derivatives • Adler • Jung • Horney • Kardiner • Sullivan • Otto Rank Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
Period Focus 1895 Account for everything via neurodynamics ego vs. environment, neuroanatomy = neurodynamics, conscious vs. unconscious 1900 Intrapsychic: drives vs. censorship 1923 Ego Psychology: Drives vs. Structures 1926 Structural concepts = external environmental referents, Drives = biological referents (organism vs. external reality) 1937-1946 Psychosocial referents crystallize in hands of neo-Freudians Level of Analysis: Changed Over Time. From Rapaport (1959) Dynamic Psychiatry WHITMAN
