Women and Political Power Reading: Hinsch, Bret, Women in Early Imperial China, pp 1-13, 15-26.

1. Women and Political Power Reading: Hinsch, Bret, Women in Early Imperial China, pp 1-13, 15-26. Ching-Chung, Priscilla, Palace Women in the Northern Sung, pp. 39-90.

2. Women and Political Power • Introduction • Political Power of Palace Women • Han Dynasty • Palace Women and Court Politics • Powerful Female Rulers • The Female Emperor: We Zetian • Warrior Empresses of the Liao • The regents of the Song • Preventing Women and Their Families from Achieving Power

3. Introduction • Throughout imperial China, from the Qin to the Qing dynasty (until 1911), women lived and worked in the palaces as wives, palace officials and as serving women. • These women entered the palace via different methods: • Through marriage to the emperor as principal consort. • Marriage as secondary consort (acquired as principal consort is barren). • Entry through summons (may have been acquired as captive through conquest, recommended for beauty, etc.). • Entry through nationwide recruitment to staff palace. • Palace women had: • Direct power – governing in the names of their husbands or sons. • Indirect power – through influencing the emperor.* • Functional power: within their assigned jobs.

4. Introduction: The Regent • There were three historical conditions under which the wife, the mother or the grandmother of the emperor could rule as regent 摄政者 or as co-regent: • When the emperor was ill. • When the emperor was unexpectedly removed or died. • When the emperor was too young to rule – the exact age is not known but it seems to be 17 sui -- rule as regent. • Dynasties of Han origin (rulers who are of Han origin) used lineal succession where the emperor’s eldest son (preferably the son of the empress) would succeed to the throne. • These dynasties preferred the senior widow as regent as she is seen as temporary and cannot claim the throne as she is not of royal blood. • It was dangerous to select regents from among the emperor’s brothers or uncles as they might claim the throne through their claim of royal blood. • These senior widows often selected members of their own families as co-regents.

5. Introduction: The Regent (2) • Dynasties of non-Han origin (rulers who are not of Han origin) have a tradition of fraternal succession where the brothers could succeed each other with the succession returning to the son of the original brother. • Brothers or uncles of emperors may be named as regents or co-regents. • After non-Han dynasties become sinicized, they often adopt the Chinese method of selecting the regent with the emperor’s relatives acting as co-regents. • Discussion Question: • Why do you think there is a difference in succession pattern between rulers of Han and non-Han origin? • Give examples.

6. Introduction: The Regent (3) The regent would be the most senior widow -- the mother, the grandmother, or even the great-grandmother . The senior widow was preferred as she could not inherit the throne. It was a temporary arrangement. Female rulers fall into three types: Ruling directly as regents refusing to retire even when the emperors came of age. Filling in while the emperor was sick or when the emperor was young and mainly acting on the advice of the top officials. Taking charge temporarily while a new emperor is being selected. The regent also had powers of spouse selection – selecting the next empress -- and the enthronement or dethronement of the next emperor. She had the power even if she was only a child. 2014/8/24 6

7. Political Power of Imperial Women: Han dynasty • The Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.) was probably the longest period of female influence at the top levels of government and the emperor’s wives and their families repeatedly seized power in government. • The powers of the women and their relatives took away the powers of the civil officials. • The Han dynasty is divided into the Former/Western Han and the Later/Eastern Han. • The division occurred as the nephew of the Empress Dowager seized power and declared a new dynasty. • After he was defeated, a descendant of the founding Han emperor ruled but he was not able to centralize his power as he owed a lot of favors to those who had helped him re-establish the Han. • These powerful families married their daughters to many of the succeeding emperors and many assumed power and ruled in the name of the emperors. • In the Former/Western Han, only two Empress Dowagers attended court and controlled the government. • In the Later/Eastern Han, nine emperors were under the control of Empress Dowagers and six ED attended court.

8. Political Power of Imperial Women: Han dynasty (2) • The powerful families of the women were not equals of the emperor and the families could be killed, if: • The woman lost favor. • The woman dies. • The family could not marry another one of their family members to the successor. • The politicians of later dynasties learned from the lessons of previous dynasties and tried to limit the power of the women and their families. • When the emperor wanted to get rid of the maternal relatives, he would turn to the eunuchs for help. • When that happened, the eunuchs would become powerful and be a threat to the officials.

9. Political Power of Imperial Women: Han dynasty The Empress who used her position to rule as regent • Empress Lü 吕 (r.195-180 BCE), wife the founder of the Han dynasty had helped Liu Bang劉邦 in his establishment of the Han dynasty. • Her son, Huidi (r.195-188BCE), succeeded as the second emperor but the mother ruled as regent as he had not yet come of age. • To ensure that no other family came to power, Empress Lü chose her granddaughter – daughter of her own daughter/Huidi’s sister – as the wife of Huidi. • Liu Bang had a favorite concubine named Qi and had even considered making her son the heir to the throne. • After Liu Bang’s death, the Empress Dowager Lü had Qi’s limbs cut off, her eyes gouged out, her ears burned, and poison poured into her mouth; Qi was then put into a sewage pit; Lü then called her a “human pig.” • Empress Dowager Lü called her son to watch and it was said that the young emperor was so frightened that he never dared oppose his mother.

10. Political Power of Imperial Women: Han dynastyThe Empress who used her position to rule as regent (2) • As a ruler, the historian, SimaQian, said that Empress Dowager Lüestablished good relations with neighboring countries, abandoned harsh policies, and created an environment that enabled the country and the people to recover after the long years of civil war. • When her son, Huidi, died at 23 years of age and the child of one of his minor consorts succeeded to the throne, she had him imprisoned as he was said to have voiced threats against Lü. • After the imprisoned child died in prison, another infant son of Huidi, succeeded with Lü as regent. • When Empress Dowager Lü died in 180 B.C.E. leaving her family members in power the other officials decided to get rid of her relatives. • They exterminated the Lü family and chose the son of Liu Bang’s consort Bo (who had no powerful relatives) to succeed to the throne as Emperor Wen (202-157 BCE).

11. Political Power of Imperial Women: Han dynasty Women who are were used by Male Relatives • Empress Shangguan 上官 was the granddaughter of two regents for the young, Zhaodi 昭帝 (r.87-74BCE). • Her paternal grandfather lost in the power struggle with her maternal grandfather, Huo Guang 霍光 (d.68 BCE), and was killed. • Huo Guang dominated government and when Zhaodi died, another young man was chosen to succeed but was found to be unacceptable. • Huo Guang then consulted a group of ranking officials and asked his granddaughter to dethrone this young man. • The young empress (15 sui), issued the edict to depose him and enthroned another prince selected by Huo Guang – Xuandi 宣帝 (r.74-49 B.C.E.). • Huo Guang arranged for one of his daughters to enter the harem, obtained official positions for four other family members and shared imperial power with the emperor; he was decorated with high honors upon his death. • Huo’s wife poisoned Xuandi’s empress so that their daughter could become the empress. • After Huo Guang’s death, the Huo family was afraid that the poisoning would be discovered and so planned to revolt; this was discovered, the family was destroyed and Huo Guang’s body was dug up and humiliated.

12. Political Power of Imperial Women: Han dynastyAn Emperor is Obsessed • Chengdi (r.32-7BCE) was obsessed by Zhao Feiyan 赵飞燕, a slave-entertainer in the service of the imperial princess. • He took her and her sister into his harem and she became his favorite. • The official empress was accused by Zhao of performing witchcraft and the emperor dismissed herand banished members of her clan from the capital. • Zhao became his empress over the protests of his officials and his own mother. • When he lost interest in her, he became interested in her sister but neither of the sisters was able to conceive a child. • When a slave girl and another concubine each gave birth to sons, the Zhaos convinced the emperor to kill both infants. • Chengdi was not interested in government and left most things to his mother, the Empress Dowager Wang and her family. • When Emperor Cheng died there was no heir and his mother, Empress Dowager Wang, and her relatives continued as regents.

13. Political Power of Imperial Women: Han dynasty Palace Women and Court Politics • The Wang family maintained their power for 40 years through the reigns of the next four emperors as the Empress Dowager Wang lived a long life. • Throughout these 40 years, E.D. Wang and her family members, served as co-regents. • Her nephew, Wang Mang, was eventually named Acting Emperor then proclaimed himself emperor of a new dynasty (r.9-23) which was overthrown by those loyal to the Han dynasty. • A descendant of the founding emperor re-established the Han which is referred to as the Later/Eastern Han. • The new Han emperor was not able to centralize his power as he owed a lot of favors to those who helped him. • Repeatedly, strong clans of imperial in-laws ruled China in the name of a weak emperor only to be exterminated by rivals who then ruled via another puppet emperor.

14. Political Power of Imperial Women: Han dynasty Palace Women and Court Politics (2) • Example: The Liang family – • It rose when it helped Guangwudi, restore the Han dynasty (Eastern/Later Han). • It gained power when a niece entered Zhangdi’s 章帝 (r.76-88)harem and two years later had a son who would become Hedi 和帝 (r.89-105). • It provided empresses for Shundi 順帝 (r.125-144) and Huandi 桓帝 (r.146-148) . • The Liang family was powerful through the reigns of Zhangdi, Hedi, Shundi and Huandi. • After the death of Huandi’s empress, the Liang family was not able to place another family member as empress. • The emperor turned to the eunuchs for support and drove the Liang family from power.

15. Powerful Female RulersThe Female Emperor: Wu Zetian • Throughout Chinese history, many women had ruled as regents: • Only one woman, Wu Zetian (d.705) of the Tang, decided to proclaim her own dynasty, at the age of 60, and become Emperor so that she can rule in her own name rather than rule in the name of the husband or the son. • She had first assisted her husband in his rule as he was not a healthy man. • She then ruled as regent for her sons when her husband died. • She deposed her own son and proclaimed herself emperor of a new dynasty when she was 60 years old. • Unfortunately, her sons were the imperial princes of the Tang and so succession reverted to the Tang dynasty. • This marked the end of her dynasty which existed for almost 20 years. • Chinese historians do not consider it a separate dynasty but include events of her reign under the Tang dynasty.

16. Powerful Female RulersWarrior Empresses of the Liao • The powerful Non-Han female rulers led armies. Two empresses of the Liao are examples: • The first, was the Empress Yingtian 应天皇后 (879-953), the wife of the founding emperor of the Liao dynasty. • Early in his reign, she planned and helped murder the tribal chiefs so her husband does not need to step down from his leadership role. • She commanded her own army of 200,000 horsemen and led battles against rival tribes; she also maintained to maintain order when her husband, Abaoji, was away on military campaigns. • After her husband died, she took control of all military and civil affairs. • She refused to be buried with him saying that her sons were too young and needed her guidance; instead, she cut off her right hand and placed it in his coffin to serve him in his after-life. • More than 300 persons were buried in his mausoleum. • She decided that the succession should be given to the second son rather than the one named as heir; • After the death of the second son, she wanted her third son to succeed to the throne, but the grandson of her first son took the throne. • She then led an army against her grandson but was defeated. She was 68 years old at the time.

17. Powerful Female RulersWarrior Empresses (2) • Empress Dowager Chengtian (969-1009), was the regent of her 11-year old son, Liao Shenzong (r.982-1031). • She was 37 when she began to rule and did not give up her rule until her death in 1009. • To affirm her legitimacy to rule she underwent the ritual of “rebirth” three times – twice in in 984 and again in 986. • This practice was usually reserved for emperors to confirm their rights to rule in the eyes of the Qidan. • The Empress Dowager was a military commander with her own army with 10,000 cavalry. She successfully led a full invasion against the Song capital of Kaifeng when she was over 60. • Negotiations began with her approval and the Treaty of Shanyuan was signed in 1004. According to the Treaty: • The Song was to pay the Liao 200,000 lengths of silk and 100,000 ounces of silver as a “contribution to military expenses” every year. • The Song emperor was to refer to the Liao emperor as younger brother and the ED Chengtian as aunt. Song officials all thought it was very good for the dynasty as it brought peace between the Liao and the Song for about 100 years.

18. The Different Regencies of the Song • There were a total of 8 regents during the Song. Of the 166 years of the Northern Song, regents ruled for 25.5 years. Regents had different styles based on their personalities and the times they lived in: • Regents who ruled as defacto sovereigns • ED Liu • ED Gao • Regents who ruled keeping low profiles: • ED Cao • Regents who ensured the succession: • ED Xiang • ED Meng • Regent who governed through influence • E.D. Yang • Regents during times of defeat • ED Xie • Yang

19. The Different Regencies of the Song: Defacto Rulers • The first time the Song dynasty needed a regent was in 1022, a little over 300 years after the death of Wu Zetian who had usurped the throne and declared a new dynasty with herself as Empress. • This incident was very fresh in the minds of the Song officials and the first regent was warned that she must never imitate Wu. • This first Song regent was Empress Dowagers Liu 刘(d.1033) who was the most ambitious and aggressive of the Northern Song regents. • She ruled for 11 years until her death even though the emperor had come of age. • She made the final decisions on state policies and on the delegation of power. • She left a will stipulating that another palace woman, Yang, should succeed her as regent even though the emperor was already 23. • Before she died he performed the imperial clan sacrifice in the imperial family clan temple wearing an emperor’s ritual robes. • As a warning to her, she was presented with a portrait of Wu Zetian; she became very angry, threw it down and said that she would never do what Wu did.

20. The Different Regencies of the Song: Defacto Rulers (2) • Grand Empress Dowager Gao 高(1031-1093), principal consort of Yingzong (r.1063-1067), and the natural mother of Shenzong (r.1068-1086), ruled as regent for her grandson, Zhezong (r.1086-1100). • She ruled directly for 8 years until her death. • She had disagreed with her son’s policies of reform and recalled the conservative, Sima Guang 司马光 (1019-1086), to head the government . • She was extremely strict with her relatives refusing to grant them special treatment; she was considered a good ruler and was praised as “a sage among women”. • Her grandson was unhappy with her regency as he had loved his father, sympathized with the reformers and disliked the conservatives who had been his strict teachers. • After his grandmother’s death, he recalled his father’s advisors and reversed his grandmother’s policies. • He wanted to demote his grandmother, posthumously, and reduce all her clan to commoners but his father’s empress, persuaded him against doing so. • Instead, he deposed his empress, Meng, whom his grandmother had chosen for him.

21. The Different Regencies of the Song: Low Profiles • The granddaughter of a founding general of the Song – Cao Bin (930-999) – was chosen after Renzong 仁宗 deposed the empress (Guo) chosen for him by Empress Dowager Liu who had been a defacto ruler. • Empress Cao 曹had assisted her husband in his rule during his later years and as there was no surviving son, a 4 year-old nephew was adopted as heir – Yingzong (r. 1063–25 1067) and he fostered by Cao. • As Yingzong 英宗 was in poor health, the officials asked that Cao be named regent and rule behind the lowered screen. • As regent, she attended to business in small halls behind a screen and accepted the advice of the officials. • When Yingzong’s health improved, the officials asked that she step down but she refused. • While the court was in session, an outspoken critic finally asked that the screen in front of her be removed and the regent was forced to leave. • Four years later, Yingzong became ill again, and abdicated in favor of his 20 year-old son, Shenzong神宗（r. 1067 - 1 1085) .

22. The Different Regencies of the Song: Ensure the succession • Xiang 向(1045-1101) was the only principal consort of Shenzong。 • Her great grandfather had served as chief councilor to Emperor Zhenzong (r.997-1022). • She was selected by Shenzong’s mother, Empress Dowager Gao. • Xiang did not have any sons and so the son of a secondary consort, Zhu (d.1102), was named the heir-apparent. • When Shenzong died, Xiang was named Empress Dowager and Zhu, the mother of the Zhezong, was named taifei (Supreme Consort). • Since Zhezong was only nine sui, his grandmother, Gao, was named Grand Empress Dowager and ruled as regent as she was the senior widow. After Gao’s death, Zhezong wanted to demote her but Xiang persuaded him against doing so. • She became regent when Zhezong died leaving no heir so E.D. Xiang chose Huizong, one of the Zhezong’s brothers to succeed to the throne. • Since Huizong was chosen by her he was loyal to her and remained under her regency for the first three months of his rule.

23. The Different Regencies of the Song: Ensure the succession (2) • E.D. Gao had chosen Meng (1077-1135) as the empress for her grandson, Zhezong. • After Gao’s death, Zhezong deposed Meng and sent her to live in the nunnery. • When the Jin (Gold) (1115-1234) attacked the capital, Meng was not living in the palace and so was not taken captive. • Instead, she served twice as regent, both of short duration. • First, when the Jin had placed a puppet, Zhang Bangchang (d.c.1130), on the Song throne and to gain legitimacy, Zhang named Meng as his regent. • When Meng learned that Prince Kang, one of the sons of Huizong (r.1101-1126), and brother of Qinzong, had arrived at Kaifeng, she sent her brother with a letter declaring Prince Kang as the legitimate emperor, and retired from her regency. • The puppet, Zhang, was forced to retire and committed suicide. • The second time she served as regent was when Gaozong was defeated in battle and two discontented leaders of his bodyguard forced him to abdicate in favor of his three-year-old son and Meng again served as regent. • As soon as Gaozong was able to defeat the rebels, Meng retired and returned the rule to Gaozong. • The Jin understood her powers as a senior widow and tried unsuccessfully to capture her.

24. The Different Regencies of the Song: Influence • Empress Dowager Yang, (1162-1232) was the daughter of a palace musician (d.1197) in the service of Empress Wu (d.1197), wife of Gaozong. • She was brought into the palace as a child and found favor with Ningzong and became his secondary consort. • When the position of empress became vacant she competed and won it (through trickery). • When Ningzong died, Yang helped fabricate the edict eliminating the heir and installing a new one in his place – Lizong. • Lizong was indebted to Yang and invited her to co-rule as regent. • She did not assume power to rule directly but chose to do so by influencing the emperor. • As regent, Yang chose Xie (1210-1283) as empress for Lizong as she was from a scholarly family that had served the emperors for many generations. • Xie’s father had helped Yang gain her position as empress.

25. The Different Regencies of the Song: Times of defeat • Empress Dowager Xie wife of Lizong, was chosen by ED Yang. • The Xie family had fallen on hard times after the death of the father, so ED Yang asked that the daughters be summoned to court as consorts for Lizong (r.1224-1264). • The brothers were very anxious that the only unmarried sister be sent even though she was not good looking and was blind in one eye. • Lizong did not like Xie but ED Yang preferred her and insisted that Xie be named empress. • Lizong had been brought up in the household of his maternal relatives, the Quan, and so was very close to them. • Lizong only had one surviving daughter that he loved and so adopted a nephew, Duzong, as heir. • She chose his mother’s grandniece as empress (Quan) for Duzong. • In 1274, Duzong died, and his four-year old son, Gongdi (1271-1324), came to the throne with Xie as regent as she was the senior widow.

26. The Different Regencies of the Song: Times of defeat (2) • When the Mongols invaded, Xie stopped the massacre of the Song population by negotiating surrender terms in which she only asked for the lives of the people of Hangzhou, the Song House, and that the Song ancestral temples not be destroyed. • She became ill when the royal captives were to be taken north and so stayed behind until she had recovered. • Since ED Xie could not travel, her daughter-in-law, Empress Dowager Quan (1241-1274), principal consort of Duzong, led the captives into exile. • Quan and her son were taken to Dadu (present day Beijing); on the way, they met with Song loyalists who tried to free them but Quan ordered them to accept the terms of surrender. • Quan was a Buddhist and converted her only son to Buddhism. • In 1228, her son, Gongdi, went to Tibet to become a Lama priest and Quan became a Buddhist nun.

27. The Different Regencies of the Song: Times of defeat (3) • Yang (1244-1279), daughter of a poet, was a secondary consort to Duzong. • Her son, Zhao Shi (1268-1278), was the eldest son but was not named heir as Yang was not the empress. • When the Mongols attacked the capital, the emperor, his mother and grandmother stayed at the capital to negotiate surrender terms. • The two princes, Zhao Shi and Zhao Bing (d.1279) (born of a minor wife), fled south to the sea with their mothers and their maternal uncles. • After the imperial court was captured and taken to the Mongol capital, the loyalist forces crowned Yang’s son in Fuzhou. • The young boy was only 9; his mother, Yang, was named Empress Dowager and regent; his reign lasted only two years.

28. The Different Regencies of the Song: Times of defeat (4) When the Mongols threatened Fuzhou, the boys were taken to the sea but a hurricane destroyed the ship and the boy emperor died. The younger brother, Zhao Bing, was then crowned Bingdi; he was 6 and Yang continued to be Empress Dowager and regent. When the Mongols pursued them, a loyal minister carried the young emperor and jumped into the sea; they both drowned. Yang searched for possible surviving members of the royal family but she despaired and committed suicide by also drowning herself in the sea.

29. Preventing Women and Their Families from Achieving Power • All dynasties tried to prevent women and their families from achieving power: • They used persuasion – holding up examples of bad practices. • Exterminating the families of these women after their death in order to curb the power that they may have achieved while their family member had control of power. • The Song dynasty would give paid positions to imperial relatives with no functional power. • The Ming dynasty only recruited women into the palace from families who had no power. • The Qing dynasty tried to prevent palace women from seeing their families. • The Northern Wei dynasty went to the extreme of forcing the mother of the heir to commit suicide.

30. Women and non-Han Rule “Imperial marriage in the Native Chinese and non-Han State, Han to Ming” “The Harem in Northern Wei Politics, 398-493 AD: A Study of Tuoba attitudes towards the institution of empress dowager and regency governments in the Chinese dynastic system during early Northern Wei” in Holmgren, Jennifer, Marriage, Kinship and Power in Northern China. The Northern Wei (398-493): “Family, Marriage and Political Power in Sixth Century China: A study of the Gao Family of the Northern Qi, c.520-550”, in Holmgren, Jennifer, Marriage, Kinship and Power in Northern China. pp VI, 1-50. “ Politics of the Inner Court under the Hou-chu (Last Lord of the Northern Qi, ca. 565-73” in Dien, Albert E., ed., State and society in early medieval China, pp 269-330. “Observations on Marriage and Inheritance Practices in Early Mongol and Yuan Society with particular reference to the Levirate” in Holmgren, Jennifer, Marriage, Kinship and Power in Northern China, Part III, pp 127-192. 30