Psychology Chapter 9: Learning Principles and Applications

1. Psychology Chapter 9:Learning Principles and Applications

2. Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning – when a person’s or animal’s old response becomes attached to a new stimulus. Learning – a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency that results from experience What are some experiences that you have had that have changed behavioral tendencies in you? Is all learning positive or can learning also be negative changes in behavior? Exercise: Conditioned Responses to Music Soundtracks (Think of some movie soundtracks; what emotions are evoked from some of them? Are there some songs that are attached to certain events in your life that evoke specific emotions in you? Take a couple of minutes and write down the song, the emotion and why.)

3. Classical Conditioning cont. 1. Classical Conditioning • a) Neutral Stimulus (NS) – a stimulus that has nothing to do with the response prior to conditioning • b) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – an event that leads to a certain, predictable response, without any previous training • c) Unconditioned Response (UCR) – a reaction that occurs naturally and automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented, a reflex • d) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – a neutral event that elicits a given response after training when paired with a UCS • e) Conditioned Response (CR) – a learned reaction to a conditioned • Stimulus • f) Classical conditioning helps people and animals adapt to a new environment, also to avoid danger • g) The acquisition of a CR occurs gradually not all at once

4. Classical Conditioning cont. Ivan Pavlov’s Experiment

5. Classical Conditioning cont. • 2. Generalization and Discrimination • a) Generalization – when an animal responds to a second stimulus that is similar to the original CS without prior training • Circle and then an Oval • b) Discrimination – the ability to respond differently to different stimuli • 3. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery • a) Extinction – the gradual disappearance of a CR when the CS is presented without the UCS • b) Spontaneous Recovery – when the CR reappears without the UCS appearing with the CS

6. Classical Conditioning cont. • 4. Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior • a) Baby Albert (Page 249 Case Study) • i. John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner • ii. The Development of emotional responses in children • iii. Very unethical • b) Bed Wetting • i. Bell and Pad • ii. When the first drop hits the sheets, an alarm goes off waking the child • c) Taste Aversions – becoming ill after you’ve eaten something. • i. Even if the food hasn’t caused the sickness, you may still attribute the illness to the food and thus that food will cause you to feel nauseated when thinking about it or seeing it • ii. Teacher/student examples Dr. Zimbardo Video #8 Section 1 Review

7. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning – learning from the consequences of our behavior Depending on the effect of these behaviors, the learner will repeat or eliminate these behaviors (get rewards or avoid punishment) • Differs from Classical condition in two ways • The learner must behave in a certain way that produces some consequence. The learner must take an active role. • Learning occurs with automatic, reflexive behaviors as well as a wide range of voluntary behaviors • B.F. Skinner popularized this type of conditioning with his research

8. Operant Conditioning cont. Reinforcement • 1. Reinforcement – a stimulus or event that increases the likelihood that behavior will be repeated • a) Primary and Secondary Reinforcers • i. Stimuli that are associated with receiving rewards or punishment • ii. Primary reinforcers – one that satisfies a biological need such as sleep, hunger or thirst • iii. Secondary reinforcers – is one that when paired with a primary reinforcer and through classical conditioning has acquired value and reinforcement

9. Operant Conditioning cont. • 2. Schedules of Reinforcement (chart on page 254) a) A stimulus or event that affects the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated • b) Schedules of Reinforcement • i. Fixed-ratio schedule – reinforcement depends on a specific quantity of responses, such as rewarding every fourth response • a. Car dealer gets $100 for every 5 cars sold ii. Variable-ratio schedule – requires that an average number of responses be made for each reinforcement a. Playing the slots at a casino • iii. Fixed-interval schedule – reinforcement is available after a pre- determined time. Hours, minutes, days but always the same • a. Getting paid every 2 weeks • iv. Variable-interval schedule – the time at which a reinforcer will be available varies throughout the conditioning procedure. • a. Pop quizzes

10. Operant Conditioning cont. 3. Shaping and Chaining • a. Shaping – a process in which reinforcement is used to sculpt new • responses out of old. Example: teaching someone to do something it has never done before and would never do if left to itself. b. Response Chains– in order to learn a skill, a person must be able to put various new responses together (responses that follow one another in a sequence). Each response produces the signal for the next one 4. Factors that affect learning • a. Feedback – finding out the results of an action or performance • Without it you may repeat the same mistakes over and over, thus developing a skill incorrectly • b. Transfer • Positive transfer - when previously learned responses help you learn a new task • Negative transfer – when a previously learned task hinders learning c. Practice – the repetition of a task Also can use mental practice to improve things without physical intervention or interaction

11. Operant Conditioning cont. • 5. Aversive Controls • a. Unpleasant consequences to certain behavioral learning • b. Two types aversive stimuli - negative reinforcers and punishers • c. Negative reinforcement – a painful or unpleasant stimulus is removed or is not applied at all if a certain kind of behavior occurs. This removal of unpleasant consequences increases the frequency of a behavior. There are two types: • Escape conditioning – the behavior a person engages in causes an unpleasant event to stop • Avoidance conditioning – the person’s behavior has the effect of preventing an unpleasant situation from happening • d. Punishment – stopping a behavior by linking it with an action. These actions (spank, etc.) are punishers • An unpleasant consequence occurs and decreases the frequency of the behavior that produced it

12. Operant Conditioning cont. • e. Differences between the negative reinforcement and punishment • Negative reinforcement – escape or avoidance behavior is repeated • Punishment – behavior that is punished is not repeated • f. Disadvantages to using aversive stimuli in changing behavior • Can produce unwanted side effects such as rage, aggression and fear • People learn to avoid the person delivering the aversive consequences • g. Punishment is likely to suppress rather than eliminate behaviors Section 2 Review

13. Social Learning Learning behaviors through people modeling behaviors. Social learning theorists view learning as purposeful, going beyond mechanical responses to stimuli or reinforcement: Bobo the Clown discussion and video clip • 1. Cognitive Learning • a. Cognitive Learning – focuses on how information is obtained, processed and organized • Concerned with the mental processes involved in learning • Cognitive Map – a mental picture of a place or event • Latent Learning – learning not demonstrated by an immediate observable change in behavior at the time of learning • 2. Learned Helplessness • Learned Laziness – if rewards come without effort, a person never learns to work • b. Learned Helplessness – if pain comes no matter how hard someone tries a person gives up, or if repeated attempts to control a situation fails, the subject believes that the situation is uncontrollable

14. Social Learning cont. • i. Believed to be a major cause of depression • ii. Elements of learned helplessness • temporary (sick) • stability (never will be good) • global (subject is just dumb) • 2 and 3 are internal • external (that was just a bad test) • 3. Modeling • 3 Types Modeling • Modeling – the behaviors of others increases the chances that we will do the same thing • ii. Observational Learning – imitation • iii. Disinhibition– when an observer watches someone else engage in a threatening activity without being punished, the observer may find it easier to engage in that behavior later

15. Social Learning cont. • 4. Behavior Modification • a. Behavior Modification- the systematic application of learning principles (classical/operant conditionings and social learning) to change people’s actions and feelings • 3 Types of Behavior Modification • i. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) • a. Based on Operant Conditioning • b. Breaking down information into smaller units • c. Response chains • ii. Token Economies • a. Children receive secondary reinforcers for positive things (grades, behavior) • b. Cash in tokens for rewards

16. Social Learning cont. • iii. Self Control • a. Statistically keep track of behaviors • b. Set up a behavioral contract • aa. Choose a reinforcer and make it depend upon something Section 3 Review Chapter 9 Study Guide Chapter 9 Review Quiz Chapter 9 Test