Lesson Six Groundless Beliefs

1. Lesson SixGroundless Beliefs By A. E. Mander

2. About the author • The present text is taken from Logic for the Millions by A．E．Mander, published by The Philosophical Library，New York，1947．

3. Introduction to the Text • One thing we all do every day is express our views，state our beliefs or discuss our ideas．We say to one another：I think，I believe，I’m convinced，I’m sure，It goes without saying，It’s crystal clear，It’s as simple as ABC，No doubt．．．，etc，every day and often many times a day．We may not be professional thinkers. But we all do thinking as a habit．We may not have reached the level of grade-one thinking．But we cannot avoid thinking，rightly or wrongly． • Do we really know what we are doing though? • Do we really know what it means when we say we are thinking? • Do we really think for ourselves? Are our beliefs and ideas really well-grounded? • Are we sure that all the beliefs we hold with intense conviction and accept without question are really true? • What constitutes adequate grounds for beliefs?

4. Introduction to the Text • These are just some of the blunt，embarrassing questions Mander，an English psychologist，asks in this passage taken from his book，Logic for the Millions． • However，this text is not chosen primarily for the purpose of shaking our beliefs．Rather it is meant to serve as a suggestive example of a curious，inquiring mind at work．Mander does not say all beliefs are unreliable and silly．He does not say that we should not have beliefs. He simply wants us to find out how we came by our beliefs. He wants us to know their bases or their grounds．He wants us to see all sides of a question. Above all, he wants us to test our beliefs．

5. Structure of the Text • Mander lists five sources for many of our groundless beliefs： • 1) Result of early environment； • 2) Parroting； • 3) Self-interest； • 4) Sentimental associations； • 5) Fashion．

6. Structure of the Text • It is no disgrace to admit that we are all heavily influenced by prejudices. And this is precisely the reason why we all need education．Education, according to one definition，is just the progressive discovery of our ignorance and prejudices which are hidden in our mind like computer virus in a computer．And unless we stay alert and check our computer constantly and wipe out all the viruses，we will be in serious trouble some day．We will not know when and where they will hit us with serious consequences．

7. Detailed Discussion of the Text • 1．In future we are going to follow the practice----until it becomes a habit----of classifying propositions according to their grounds．(1) • to follow the practice：to take this practice as a guide；to copy this practice；to develop the habit of doing things in this way • to classify：to arrange things systematically in classes or groups • propositions：views；ideas；assertions • [Note] • The author begins by emphasizing the importance of classifying our propositions according to their grounds．This is important because people very often base their judgment of propositions according to their popularity, usefulness, source of authority as well as to their personal taste．They do not always accept beliefs because they are true. Often they accept them because these beliefs serve their immediate purpose. or because they sound nice，or because it is easier or safer to accept them．

8. Detailed Discussion of the Text • 2．Probably we shall be astonished at the number of propositions met with in everyday life which we shall find it necessary to class as groundless．(1) • the number of propositions met with：the number of propositions encountered or experienced • to be astonished at：Compare：to be surprised at；to be alarmed at；to be disappointed at (For more examples，see Exercise 5 in Pre-class Work) • to class as groundless：to classify as groundless (For more examples of verbs followed by as，see Exercise 5 in Pre-class Work)

9. Detailed Discussion of the Text • 3．They rest upon mere tradition，or on somebody’s bare assertion unsupported by even a shadow of proof…(1) • to rest upon/ on：to be based on • bare assertions：strong statements without the support of proof • a shadow of：the slightest trace of (used in negative sentences)

10. 1) Result of early environment • 4. Many of our strongest convictions were established then．(2) • They are strong because they have been in our mind for such a long time．They are strong because they were imprinted on our mind when we were little children，before we were able to judge for ourselves．They are strong because they were passed on to us during our most formative years and often by people we trusted and loved.

11. conviction：firm belief or opinion (Do not confuse this word with its other meaning as in “the conviction of a person for a crime”.) • to be established：to be formulated

12. 1) Result of early environment • 5. But if the staunchest Roman Catholic and the staunchest Presbyterian had been exchanged when infants，and if they had been brought up with home and all other influences reversed, we can have very little doubt what the result would have been．(3) • But if they were exchanged when they were infants and brought up in different homes and under different influences，then the staunchest Roman Catholic would be the staunchest Presbyterian，and vice versa．This shows that our beliefs are largely influenced by our surroundings.

13. Presbyterian：a member of the Presbyterian Church，a Protestant denomination • when infants：(elliptical) when they were infants • The word “doubt” can be followed by a wh- clause or a that clause．More examples： • We have no doubt who is the rightful owner of the house. • There is some doubt whether the local inhabitants will benefit from the project. • They haven't the slightest doubt that military action will worsen the situation.

14. 1) Result of early environment • 6. It is consistent with all our knowledge of psychology to conclude that each would have grown up holding exactly the opposite beliefs to those he holds now… (3) • We can conclude，based on all our knowledge of psychology，that each would have grown up having exactly the opposite beliefs to what they have now． • to be consistent with：to be in agreement with. More examples： • This practice is not consistent with government regulations. • What he is doing is consistent with his basic moral principles．

15. 7. The same thing is true, of course，of many beliefs other than those of a religious nature．(3) • Not only are religious beliefs like this．Many other beliefs are, too. • other than：This expression usually means “except”，but here it means “apart from”. This usage, however，is not considered standard by many． • Notice the pattern “to be true of sth”．

16. 1) Result of early environment • 8. If we had grown up in a community where polygamy or head-hunting, or infanticide, or gladiatorial fighting，or duelling，was regarded as the normal and natural thing--then we should have grown upto regard it as “obviously” natural and perfectly moral and proper．(3) • Polygamy，headhunting，infanticide，gladiatorial fighting and dueling are practiced only in some communities or practiced in certain historical times．They are considered immoral，improper and abnormal elsewhere or in modern times．

17. [Cultural Note] • Polygamy refers to the condition of a man having more than one wife or a woman having more than one husband at the same time. Its practice existed in many cultures in ancient times and in fact still does in some cultures today although mostly among wealthy people．However, now it is considered barbarous in many countries and is prohibited by the law. • Headhunting refers to the practice of obtaining and preserving the heads of one’s enemies. Believed by some that the power of persons whose heads were taken was added to that already possessed by the successful warrior or his village. Once widely practiced, it is now rare.

18. Gladiatorial fighting：Gladiators were people whose profession was to fight for the public amusement in ancient Roman times Drawn from slaves，captives，and criminals, they were carefully trained and kept together in barracks or schools. They usually fought with nets，tridents and short swords．Gladiatorial fighting did not stop until the 5th century • Notice that the word “community” is often used where in the Chinese context it might be replaced by “society”

19. 1) Result of early environment • 9．Many of our beliefs----many of our most deeply-rooted and fundamental convictions----are held simply as a result of the fact that we happen to have been “brought up” to them．(3) • Many of our deep-rooted and basic beliefs are determined by our social or cultural traditions. • Give examples such as the following： • 1) China is a large country with abundant natural resources． • 2) Man will struggle to conquer nature． • 3) Money is dirty．

20. 4) Self-concern is the root of all evil． • 5) Those who work with their brain，rule． • 6) We are now living on the eve of world revolution． • 7) Once we have enough food，we will have nothing to worry about． • 8) Class struggle is the key link．Once you grasp it，everything else will fall into place． • 9) Many hands make light work． • 10) We must save every penny to support our national reconstruction．

21. 2) Parroting • 10．of course we do not cease…to adopt new beliefs on mere suggestion.…to take only the most striking examples，the enormous influence of newspapers and the effectiveness of skilful advertising．(4) • Of course it does not mean that when we grow up we no longer have these mistaken beliefs．We still do．We are still easy and often willing victims of newspapers and advertising for example． • Newspapers in the West are supposed to bring the truth to the readers. But actually they are often biased．They often tell only half-truths．Sometimes they even tell barefaced lies．Honest reporting is often censored or banned． • As for advertising，political as well as commercial，the purpose is to sell，not to seek truth．Therefore honest advertising is an oxymoron．

22. 2) Parroting • 11．Much of what passes as such is not, strictly, thinking at all．It is the mere “parroting” of ideas picked up by chance and adopted as our own without question．Most people, most of the time, are mere parrots．(4) • what passes as such：what people take as thinking • According to the author，most people，most of the time，are mere parrots．They simply copy，echo，or repeat others’ ideas without question.

23. The author does not mean that we should not learn from others or benefit from the accumulated wisdom of the past．The important thing is that all beliefs should be questioned，reexamined and tested before we decide to accept or reject them．

24. 2) Parroting • 12. But as we leave childhood, we tend to accept only such new ideas as fit in with the ideas we already hold．(4) • to fit in with: say the same thing or follow the same principle；agree with • If we tend to accept such new ideas as fit in with the ideas we already hold，they are，strictly speaking, no longer new ideas．Therefore it is often the case that when we say we are thinking，we are really rearranging our deeply-rooted prejudices．

25. Experience has told us that it is not easy to develop and accept new ideas．The psychological reasons might be： • 1) New ideas require a great effort to discover and absorb，and people have a natural tendency to be lazy (the force of inertia)； • 2) New ideas always threaten our sense of security，and people usually prefer not to enter what they consider dangerous waters (the fear of the unknown)； • 3) New ideas imply that our old ideas are wrong, and people feel that they make them foolish．They refuse to accept them in order to save their ego； • 4) New ideas always put some vested interests in danger, and people often reject them to cling on to those interests．

26. 2) Parroting • 13．Propositions that are accepted simply because “everybody says so,” must be classed under the same heading．(5) • People often do this because group identity is a very strong psychological need．People are afraid of being isolated．They often have a tendency to follow the crowd (to jump on the bandwagon). It is because of this that tyrants often use group pressure to impose their views．And it is because of this that we should learn to defy majoritarian tyranny if we want to stick to truth．

27. 14. It may be part of the traditional belief of the people or the race．(5) • A person’s racial，cultural，national，political，class，gender，generation identity，while enabling him／her to see the world in a unique approach, also tends to limit his／her vision． • That’s why we need to guard against our racial，cultural，national, political，class，gender, generation prejudices and learn to be more open-minded.

28. 2) Parroting • 15. But we should fully face the fact that beliefs which are merely inherited from the past must have originated at a time when men knew much less than they know today．So the fact that a belief is“old”is no argument in its favour．(5) • One of our common mistakes is to accept beliefs simply on the merit of their long history．But the author is right to say that the fact a belief is old is no argument in its favor．There are many old prejudices which have been proved wrong．However, one might also add that the fact a belief is new is no argument in its favor either，because it has not stood the test of time and is likely to pass like many fashionable things．

29. So we might use the author’s own approach to classify his proposition that the fact a belief is old is no argument in its favor according to its grounds．And we might say it is well grounded because it is true that many old ideas originated at a time when we knew much less than we do today． • But we can also say that it is not so well-grounded because the fact that a belief is old sometimes does mean that it has been proved correct again and again in history． • to be inherited from the past：to be passed on from the past • in its favor：in its support

30. 2) Parroting • 16．When we find ourselves entertaining an opinion about which there is a feeling that even to enquire into it would be absurd，unnecessary，undesirable, or wicked----we may know that that opinion is a non-rational one．(7) • Another common mistake we make is to judge opinions according to our feelings．An opinion is true because it is true，not because we like it or find it desirable or useful．In fact，truth can often be unpleasant or painful whereas untruth can be soothing and attractive．That is why opinions are often bitterly debated or enthusiastically cherished，precisely because their truthfulness is not established．

31. 2) Parroting • 17.…we should remember that the whole history of the development of human thought has been full of cases of such “obvious truths” breaking down when examined in the light of increasing knowledge and reason．(8) • Examples of such cases (We used to regard the following as obvious truth)： • that the sun moves round the earth； • the earth is flat； • the moon is a huge lantern in the sky； • the stars we see are all twinkling at this particular moment； • the air is weightless； • there is always a king； • there are always slaves and slave-owners； • men are always stronger than women； • war is inevitable，etc．

32. to break down：to cease to be useful；to fail to function；to stop being acceptable • in the light of：in consideration of；as a result of • Notice that to the author，the right question to ask about any opinion is whether it is rational or whether it is true，not whether it is good，necessary，desirable，or important． • He obviously believes that in the final analysis，an opinion that is rational and true cannot help being good，necessary and desirable．

33. 2) Parroting • 18．Again，for more than two thousand years．it was “impossible to conceive ”the planets as moving in paths other than circles．The circle was “obviously” the perfect figure…(9) • It was Kepler (1571-1630)，the famous German mathematician and astronomer, who formulated the three laws of planetary motion．The first law states that the orbit of a planet is an ELLIPSE，with the sun’s center as one of its principal focuses.

34. 19．The age-long struggle of the greatest intellects in the world to shake off that assumption is one of the marvels of history．(9) • intellect：a person possessing considerable capacity for thought and knowledge • to shake off：to get rid of • For more phrasal verbs with “off”，see Exercise 5 in Pre-class Work．

35. 2) Parroting 20．Many modern persons find it very difficult to credit the fact that men can ever have supposed otherwise．(10) to credit the fact：to believe the fact otherwise：differently • 21. An assumed or dogmatic proposition which had been universally accepted as “obvious”; and which, when challenged, was supported by reference to a dogma of Aristotle．Until Galileo actually demonstrated the contrary，nothing could have seemed more beyond possibility or doubt．(12) • This is a reference to the well-known story about Galileo’s experiment on the Leaning Tower of Pisa． • to demonstrate the contrary：to prove that the contrary is true by means of a demonstration

36. dogma：a principle, belief or a statement of an idea formerly and authoritatively considered to be absolute truth • to be beyond possibility or doubt：to be impossible or unquestionable • Galileo Galilei (1564--1642)，Italian mathematician，scientist，and astronomer who laid the foundation for many natural sciences It is reported that he demonstrated the error of Aristotle’s theory that two bodies of different weight fall with speed proportional to their weight--from the famed Leaning Tower of Pisa.

37. 2) Parroting • 22. Progress in human thought seems to consist mainly in getting rid of such ideas．(13) • Notice the difference between consist in and consist of • to consist of：to be made of or composed of • Examples： • The company consists of five departments． • to consist in：to have a basis in；to lie in：to be found in • Examples： • Happiness consists in appreciating what you have．

38. 3) Self-interest[p14-17] • 23．Other beliefs are held through self-interest．Modern psychology leaves us no room for doubt on this point．We adopt and cling to some beliefs because----or partly because----it “pays” us to do so．(14) • This is obvious and has been proved by psychology．Take for example our belief that human beings are superior to all other species. We hold and cling to this belief because it is in our interest to believe that all other species are created by God (only for those who believe in God) to serve our needs, a view no other animals，in so far as they can have a view, will accept.

39. The author does not say whether it is possible for us to transcend our interest in forming our belief．The answer is yes，but it is possible only when we can forgo selfish considerations． • To leave no room for doubt: to make it impossible for people to doubt • to pay sb to do sth：to bring benefit or advantage to sb to do sth • Examples： • It pays to tell people the truth． • It pays to forgive others． • It doesn’t pay to work too hard at the expense of your health．

40. 3) Self-interest[p14-17] • 24．But，as a rule, the person concerned is about the last person in the world to be able to recognize this in himself．(14) • as a rule：generally speaking；usually • to be the last person to do sth：to be the least possible person to do sth • People who hold those beliefs through self-interest usually will not admit this. They usually try to cloak themselves with beautiful altruistic words．

41. 25. It would be quite wrong to attribute all opinions----even political opinions----to self-interest．But it would be equally wrong to deny that this is one potent factor．(14) • Human motivations are complicated．There are other-regarding motivations as well as self-regarding ones．Therefore it is wrong to be cynical and think that all beliefs are based on self-interest．However，we must admit that self interest is a very powerful factor． • to attribute to：to regard as resulting from

42. 3) Self-interest[p14-17] • 26．But we may extend the term to cover also his interest in social position．Popularity with his fellows；the respect andgoodwill of those whose respect and goodwill he values．(15) • to extend the term：to extend the meaning of the word；to understand the word in a broader sense • The author does not use the word interest in the material sense only．He includes one's concern for position，popularity，fame，respect，love, etc．

43. 27. There is many a man who is unconsciously compelled to cling to a belief because he is a “somebody” in some circle----and if he were to abandon that belief, he would find himself nobody at all．(15) • there is many a man：there are many people • to be compelled to：to be forced to • to be somebody in some circle：to be an important person in a certain group of people who know each other • nobody：an insignificant person

44. 3) Self-interest[p14-17] • 28．Putting it broadly，we should always suspect any of our opinions when we recognize that our happiness depends，directly or indirectly, upon our continuing to hold them---when we might lose anything，material or otherwise, by changing our opinion．(16) • If by changing our opinions we might lose something and therefore be unhappy，we must be suspicious about these opinions and try to find out whether we are not being blinded by our self interest． • Notice that the author uses the word suspect．It means that it is always wrong to link an opinion with interest．

45. 3) Self-interest[p14-17] • 29. Somewhat similar is the acceptance of an opinion through the desire---probably not recognized by the person concerned----to justify his own nature，his own position, or his own behavior．(17) • We often accept an opinion to justify or defend our weaknesses，mistakes，vulnerable positions or wrongdoings．Here it is no longer the interest to gain but the interest to avoid losing certain things.

46. 4. Sentimental associations[p18-19] • 30．Many groundless opinions are held through sentimental associations．The thought is associated with memories----pleasant or unpleasant as the case may be----or particular persons who held similar opinions．(18) • Very often we like or dislike an opinion because it is held by somebody we like or dislike．This is another common error．The fact is that there is no correlation between the truthfulness of an opinion and the person who holds that opinion．Nice and well-meaning people may have erroneous opinions，whereas unpleasant people may hold correct opinions.

47. 4. Sentimental associations[p18-19] • 31. In adult life，as we have often observed, a bitter quarrel may change a man’s opinion entirely．Antagonism to a man usually produces some antagonism to his opinions；(19) • antagonism：hostility；dislike；hatred • There was a time when we believed that we should oppose whatever our enemies supported and support whatever our enemies opposed．This often proved to be wrong. The author has told us why here．

48. 4. Sentimental associations[p18-19] • 32. What keen satisfaction we find in belittling the opinions or attacking the opinions, of somebody of whom we are jealous, or of somebody against whom we bear a grudge! (19) • keen satisfaction：strong satisfaction • to belittle：(fml) to make sth or sb seem small or unimportant • to be jealous of： to feel angry and unhappy because sb has sth that you don’t have • to bear a grudge against sb：to continue to feel annoyed about sth sb did a long time ago

49. 4. Sentimental associations[p18-19] • 34．But, on the other hand, it is equally true that friendly feelings to a man have an effect in disposing us to feel friendly to his views．(19) • to dispose sb to do sth：to make sb more likely to feel or think a particular wav about sth • (Note：This use of the word dispose is not common．)

50. 5) Fashion [p20-24] • 35．To take one example：how largely our opinions on the merits of certain authors, or poets，or composers, are dictated merely by fashion! We tend very strongly to feel and to believe as others are feeling and believing．Not all others,perhaps；but others of our own set．(20) • Our opinions of authors，poets and composers are to a large extent determined by fashion．And as fashions come and go，our opinions also change． • merits：good qualities that make sth／sb deserve praise and admiration • to dictate：to control and influence；to determine • set：a group of people with similar interests；crowd；bunch；circle