Science in the Dark Ages

1. Science in the Dark Ages The world is still largely undiscovered. People in one country or continent know little or nothing about people or ideas elsewhere. Much of the flourishing of scientific thought is taking place in China and what is now known as the Middle East.

2. Important Conditions • Barbarians, hordes, warrior-kings and empire building is a major aspiration of some cultures. • Translation of ancient latin/greek texts into Arabic becomes very important for the transmission of knowledge

3. Some Science Highlights • 517: John Philoponus experimentally determined that falling objects do so with the same acceleration, or 'impetus,' specifically opposing Aristotle's notion that the medium was important. • Concludes, against Aristotle, that there is nothing to prevent motion from occurring in a void • Aristotle's verdict that the speed is proportional to the weight of the moving bodies and indirectly proportional to the density of the medium is disproved by Philoponus through appeal to the same kind of experiment that Galileo was to carry out centuries later

4. More Highlights • About 1000, Ibn al-Haitam, or al-Hazen, in Opticae Thesaurus, introduced the idea that light rays emanate in straight lines in all directions from every point on a luminous surface. • 1079: Omar Khayyam, computed the length of the year as 365.24219858156 days • 1086: Shen Kua, a Chinese scientist, writes his Dream Pool Essays in 1086. In these he outlines the principles of erosion, sedimentation and uplift • 1088 (approximate). The University of Bologna is founded

5. First Recognition of Coordinate Time • 1092, Walcher of Malvern, having observed an eclipse in Italy, determined the difference in longitude with England by discovering the time which it was observed there • This is a big deal but the ball was dropped and the systematics of this observation were not properly appreciated fro some time

6. New Methodologies • In 1267 and 1268, Bacon published proposals for educational reform, arguing for the study of nature, using observation and exact measurement, and asserting that the only basis for certainty is experience, or verification • What is Bacon expressing here?

7. Thomas Aquinas • Between 1267 and 1273, Aquinas, in Summa Theologica, pointed out the "difference between a hypothesis which must necessarily be true and one which merely fitted the facts” • creates a synthesis between Christian theology and Aristotelianism. He asserted that political power is natural, as hierarchic relations already exist among the angels in heaven.

8. Christian Crusades • The imposition of one world view on all others that were geographically accessible • Ends in 1271 • By 1291 the Muslim world had re-captured all of the territory in Syria that was held by the Crusaders • Now maybe Europe can move onto other things besides crusading (like taking better care of their own people – just a thought)

9. Towards Real Science • In 1328 or earlier, Ockham, in Summa Logicae, wrote that universals exist only in men's minds and in language, disputing the Aristotelian principle that such things as the final cause were self-evident or necessary. In other words, facts could only be correlated, not caused. Ockham's razor:' What can be done with fewer assumptions is done in vain with more. • Does this represent a Bias?

10. Nicole Oresme • Circa 1350-1360 (University of Paris) • Probably the first examle of what we would consider as a modern scientist • Paris master and bishop of Lisieux who reformulated Aristotle's doctrine of natural place in a way that allowed for the possibility of other worlds. He taught that the doctrine was valid providing only that heavy bodies were located more centrally than light ones. Since there could be many centers, there could, in principle, be many different systems of worlds

11. Oresme Continued • Associated the idea of continuous change with a coordinate system (long before Descarte) • Gave credible opposition to Nicols favorite argument: • “if a man in the heavens, moved and carried along by their daily motion, could see the earth distinctly..., it would appear to him that the earth is moving in daily rotation"

12. Closing in on the Reformation • Feudal states approaching maximum extent • A real (hierarchical) class system exists with most people being peasants • Public health was horrible; plagues were abundant • Prosperity was absent for most • The printing press will be launched in 1440

13. And then you could print this The merchants are the biggest fool of all. They carry on the most sordid business and by the most corrupt methods. Whenever it is necessary, they will lie, perjure themselves, steal, cheat, and mislead the public. Nevertheless, they are highly respected because of their money. There is no lack of flattering friars to kowtow to them, and call them Right Honorable in public. The motive of the friars is clear: they are after some of the loot. . . .

14. And This . . After the lawyers come the philosophers, who are reverenced for their beards and the fur on their gowns. They announce that they alone are wise and that the rest of men are only passing shadows. . . . The fact that they can never explain why they constantly disagree with each other is sufficient proof that they do not know the truth about anything. They know nothing at all, yet profess to know everything. They are ignorant even of themselves, and are often too absent-minded or near-sighted to see the ditch or stone in front of them. . .

15. And Finally this . . Perhaps it would be wise to pass over the theologians in . silence. That short-tempered and supercilious crew is unpleasant to deal with. . . . They will proclaim me a heretic. With this thunderbolt they terrify the people they don't like. Their opinion of themselves is so great that they behave as if they were already in heaven; they look down pityingly on other men as so many worms. A wall of imposing definitions, conclusions, corollaries, and explicit and implicit propositions protects them. They are full of big words and newly-invented terms. . . .