DEMOCRACY AND LIBERALISM

1. DEMOCRACY AND LIBERALISM ‘Give me the liberty know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience.’ John Milton ‘Laissez-faire, laissez-passer.’ Unknown

2. Political Ideologies & Political Concepts • What is an ideology? • Are you ideological? • Essentially contested concepts: • Freedom –Equality – Democracy - Property • Origins? • the Enlightenment • “Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-imposed immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one’s understanding without guidance from another. This immaturity is self-imposed when its cause lies not in lack of understanding, but in lack of resolve and courage to use it without guidance from another. Sapere Aude! [dare to know] “Have courage to use your own understanding!”–that is the motto of enlightenment.” – Immanuel Kant, “What is Enlightenment,” BerlinischeMonatsschrift (Berlin Monthly), 1784 • the science of ideas….. • traditional ideologies of the Enlightenment? • What do we mean by the terms left and right? • Keep in mind…… • each ideology can encompass broad perspectives and ideals…. • not always easy to distinguish between them because difference can be subtle…. • don’t associate ‘ideology’ with ‘political party’…….Ex. Liberalism and BC Liberals….

3. Democracy and Liberalism • the individual – cast in terms of natural rights – freedom and equality • early liberalism directed against 18th century absolutism and many feudal practices • the origins of ideology – response to end of feudalism • ‘conservative’ tradition? • laissez-faire capitalism • middle class • freedom of movement and trade – against political and economic constraints • appealed to a large sector of society – new risings classes, peasants, workers – against the landed aristocracy, while also being opposed by the monarchy and the church • The Three Cores of Liberalism • Moral – freedom, dignity and life – what does it mean to be human? • Economic – rights and freedoms of individuals to produce and to consume, to enter contractual relations, to buy/sell through a marketeconomy, to satisfy wants in one’s own way, to dispose of one’s property and labour as one decides • Political – the right to vote, to participate, to decide what kind of government to elect, • and what kind of policies to follow. Think: representative democracy.

4. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1831) and Utilitarianism • Every object can satisfy a want • This is subjective – • For some, a poem has a greater ‘utility’ than a hot dog. For others, the hot dog comes first. The ‘market’ decides…. • Our purpose is to please ourselves and avoid pain • But – pain is inevitable – hence: • Self-interest gives way to enlightened self-interest

5. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) and Enlightened Self-Interest • On Liberty (1859) • Moral individualism – • links it to requirements of education and enlightenment • What is ‘Enlightened Self-Interest?’ • Someone who forgos an immediate pleasure in order to derive a greater one later • Same criteria applies to groups or classes of people – • If we act in terms of enlightened self-interest, we may consider concessions to other groups or classes than risk the loss of all we have • Some pleasures are better than others because of their intrinsic quality, not because of the particular pleasure they give to an individual – • So……..A poem has more utility than a hot dog?!?! • But how can the people be led to make the right decision? • Education – • Obligation of the state to establish education, and…. • It is the function of education to enlighten.....transforming an essentially hedonistic society into a body of civic-minded individuals…. • who would put the general good above their own particular pleasure?

6. John Locke (1632-1704) • Two Treatises on Government (1693) • the state is the custodian of natural rights and is founded upon the consent of the government in order to protect these rights – life, liberty, and property. • contract theory led to the elaboration of institutions of limited state and a limited gov’t • Representative Gov’t • political authority derives from the people • In the British tradition – • parliamentary sovereignty and majority rule • Must restrain from violating people’s natural rights • Elitist? • Applied to only those who held property • Middle class • Landed Aristocracy • Note: It was only much later, when the vote was expanded to ultimately to all citizens, that the problem of how to limit the majority assumed particular importance • Constitutionalism – (Think: US Constitution) • Emphasis on restraining political power of majority rule on individual • Separation of powers = one power checks another • idea of limitations is more important than popular sovereignty

7. Alexis De Tocqueville (1805-1859) • French aristocrat • Democracy in America (1835?) • De Tocqueville’s Liberalism was driven by two forces……what? • Is it possible to have democracy without liberty? • De Tocqueville identifies a structural flaw in democratic societies…. • Liberals preoccupied by the ‘contract’ between the individual and the state • Not enough room for ‘buffers between the individual and the state…’ • ….essentially, what he worried about? • American Revolution v. French Revolution? • Why did De Tocqueville laud (praise) American democracy? • What did he worry about with respect to American democracy? • ‘mass society might weaken liberty by narrowing society’s choices?’ How? • De Tocqueville was most concerned about the growth of the state……. • but, the threat comes from other forces in our modern age……such as?

8. Classic Liberalism v. Reform Liberalism • Classic Liberalism • emphasizes limited government and a free marketplace • John Locke – thru a ‘social contract’…..limited gov’t protects life, liberty, and property • Adam Smith (1723-1790) • The Wealth of Nations(1776) • the bible of liberal economic theory……father of econ. Liberalism? • self-interest – the profit motive – best for econ. growth & society • How does private gain translate into public good? • Law of Supply and Demand • limited state • defense, internal order and justice…’certain public works or institutions’ • opposed to government intervention in the market • free trade • ‘Divine Hand of Providence’ • free competition and interplay of economic interests and forces would lead to social and economic harmony ………laissez-faire • Key – • individuals are of equal value…..but not equal – meritocracy? • But…..Does the ‘free market’ allow for genuine equality of opportunity?

9. Reform Liberalism …..social liberalism? welfare liberalism? modern liberalism? • combines support for individual freedom with a belief that gov’t action may be needed • to remove obstacles to individual development • formal equality may not be sufficient for individuals to pursue freedom • an equal right to freedom? • reforming capitalism? • John Maynard Keynes(1883-1946) • laissez-faire economic system does not lead to the common good • Keynesian Economics • Increase gov’t spending……’deficit financing’ • ...particularly during econ. downturns • public works projects • ….foster full employment • ….demand for products • Consequence of the Great Depression (1929-1939) • ‘Boom & Bust’ Economics…..the effect of an unregulated free-market? • brings re-evaluation about role of government • ideological shift? • gov’t needs to be more ‘hands on’ ….regulate economy, help the needy… • Measures include: • unemployment insurance, old age pensions, health care, & subsidized education

10. Historical Development of Liberalism • free market v. state intervention? • Classic Liberalism • Adam Smith – The Wealth of Nations • ‘negative liberty’ • emphasis on individual liberty……from the state • late 19th century – extent of poverty recognized; trade unions • Reform (New) Liberalism • ‘positive liberty’ • freedom to pursue self-development, which is assumed to require state intervention to protect rights, promote equality of opportunity…… • ‘social contract’ • idea that individuals have voluntarily agreed to • accept certain limits on their freedom in return for • benefits government will provide….. • Key – • individuals are of equal value…..but not equal – meritocracy? • But…..Does the ‘free market’ allow for genuine equality of opportunity?

11. Socialism…… ……..Reform Liberalism? • 19th Century Industrialism • Working class? Middle Class? • Socialist principles…. • human nature? • Equality? • Collectivism? • Revolutionary v. Evolutionary Socialism? • Marx – popular uprising? • Lenin – coup d’etat led by a ‘vanguard’ • ‘Democratic Socialism’ • universal suffrage • the state can be responsive to working class interests…. • attached to the moral core of liberalism – stress on individual and civil rights • Reject notion of ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ (say no, to violent revolution) • What are the objectives of socialism? • strong state in a socialist society v. decentralized communal society? • public ownership? • ‘market socialism’ – but, where to draw the line? • Reforming Capitalism or Destroying Capitalism?

12. ‘Social Democracy’ ……Social Democrats? • Correcting the excesses of the free-market….. • Unequal distribution of income and power runs counter to the democratic goals of equal citizens • Democracy involves not only political and civil rights, but also entitlements that ensure various social and economic rights…… • Economics and Inequality – Canadian Inequality • Two factors explain Canada's growing gap: • a widening disparity in labour earnings between high- and low-paid workers, and • less redistribution.

13. Formal Equality vs. Substantive Equality

14. Marx and the Roots of Communism • Theory of Communism: • - The Communist Manifesto • - Das Kapital • Marx and Engel outline industry in the 20th century • “Bourgeoisie” – the factory owner • “Proletariat” – the worker • For Marx – • the Proletariat was most significant, as workers produced the product…Capitalists stole profit of the product from worker • Marx – Workers take over all elements of production • Private property is evil • Marx Revolution: • Class Struggles=Exploitation: Masses must be made to see this and revolt • Capitalism will end once the worker becomes conscious • After the revolution: ‘Dictatorship of the Proletariat’ • After a time this dictatorship will wither away, giving way to true communism Karl Marx Marx envisioned the ‘revolution’ would take place in a heavily industrialized society – Russia?!!!

15. Marx’s five stages of history * Private property is abolished

16. Political ideologies

17. The State and the Individual • Liberalism as an antistate philosophy? • Role of the state is to protect the individual – • On Liberty (1859) • That every restraint imposed by the state is bad • That even if the individual cannot do certain things well, the state should not do them for fear that it might undermine the individual’s independence and initiative • Increase of the power of the state is bad and prejudicial to individual freedom • Achievements: The Expansion of Liberalism • Slavery was abolished • Religious disabilities against holding public office abandoned • Freedom of press, speech and association granted • Public Education • Universal Suffrage • Constitution-making • Representative gov’t became increasingly accepted throughout Europe (not Russia!) • Free(r) Trade • Self-determination

18. Benito Mussolini – ‘the schoolteacher’ ‘Il Duce’ 1919 – Mussolini leads small radical right- wing movement – the Fascists • Anti-socialist • Anti-liberal • Anti-mass democracy • Extreme Nationalism • Violence ‘Black Shirts’ – paramilitary political goons https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Jg7fFYL3z4 1920-1922: Populist movement – Professional, the intelligentsia, and middle class members https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l7lw30qKFLw 1922: The March on Rome • Strategy whereby they would forcibly take over the government • Mussolini gathers 26,000 Black Shirts outside Rome & demands role in government • King (anti-communist) hands over Mussolini government without a single shot fired Acerbo Law (1923) - assures a two-thirds majority for the party with the most votes Lateran Accords (1929)- Catholic Church signs in order to ensure its survival, and Mussolini signs to receive an appearance of sanction by the Church (important because most Italians were practicing Catholics)

19. Italy Under the Fascists ‘Did conditions in Italy improve under the fascists?’ Economics – ‘The Corporate State’ • Management and workers running everything together • In fact this suppressed the rights of the working man; economic planning was now centralized and made to appear efficient • State interference in the economy Problems: Limited Natural Resources Agricultural Production: Increase by 40%-70% Nevertheless – Italy still imports food at start of WWII Italian Imperialism 1935 – Italian invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) • Hoare-Laval Plan: Early form of ‘appeasement’ by Br. & Fr. • Failure of League of Nations & Collective Security 1935-39 – Mussolini makes Italy predominant in Mediterranean-Red Sea Region 1939 – Annexation of Albania

20. THE CONSERVATIVE TRADITION “When the leaders choose to make themselves bidders at an auction of popularity, their talents, in the construction of the state, will be of no service. They will become flatterers instead of legislators; the instruments, not the guides, of the people” Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, 1790

21. Historical Roots of Conservatism • What was Plato suggesting by ‘philosopher kings?’ • Our society today is based on liberal ideas and values • liberalism is the dominant political ideology • but not everyone buys in, and not everyone bought in during the Enlightenment • landed aristocracy • rural groups, those who live in small towns, the old, and the uneducated • Why? • Is Conservatism more a state of mind than a political ideology? • to conserve – what? • property • status • power • a way of life • privilege • Can it be identified with certain fundamental convictions? • An aversion to ‘rationalist’ thought?

22. Reflections on the Revolution in France, 1790 • Edmund Burke • Classic Conservatism: The British Model • political society • idea is that society is a tapestry, a fabric woven of different threads, so everyone depends on everyone else…..but hierarchical and with social inequality • political authority • disagree with ‘contract’ theory of state propounded by liberals • we are born into society like our father and forefathers – we do not make it • change • Change should be gradual, not revolutionary • leadership • ‘Natural leaders’ – men, or women of talent, high birth, and property – • should govern and the many should follow • Paternalistic • social welfare?

23. American ‘Conservative’ Tradition • Rights of Man, 1791 • Thomas Paine • self-made man • a person’s worth lies in achievement, not birth, inheritance or status • the Constitution • limitations on direct democracy & emphasis on law • opposed to majoritarianism and reason • restraints placed on both government and the people • ‘wisdom of the framers’ • The 2nd amendment to the US constitution? • Economics • economic liberalism or paternalistic capitalism? • free market, free enterprise • hostility to big government, government spending and high taxes • Moral Issues • religious values? • law and order

24. The Seven Pillars of Conservative Thought? The logic of conservative ideology – Individual liberties are more important than ‘equality’ Against the concentration of power in the hands of anybody, especially ‘the people’ Insist on a hierarchy of groups and classes and a cooperation among them Respect for tradition and ‘inheritance’ Religion, with its reverence for authority, is dear to conservatives Distrust ‘reason’ and the propriety of using it as a solution for social problems Elitist – Some are better equipped than others to lead, some are superior, while some (generally the many) are inferior

25. Early Hitler Hitler’s Early Life: Born in Austria, 1889 Denied entry into Vienna Art School – What if? Enlisted in German army where he became a fanatical soldier and was decorated with the Iron Cross. After the war, he drifted. In bars and taverns he became well known for his debating and oratorical skills. He joined the German Workers’ Party and in 1920 became its leader. He changed the name to the National Socialist German Workers Party, from which we get NAZI. Hitler, far left, circa 1916

26. Key Ideas in Hitler’s Doctrine Repudiated democratic government and called the Weimar Republic an “abortion of filth”. He defined personal freedoms as “rotten liberalism,” incompatible with a strong and vigorous nation. Racial superiority of the Aryan or Nordic peoples. Jews, Slaves, Africans and Gypsies, homosexuals and the disabled were at the other end of the human scale. Hitler believed that the German people had a collective “will” (das folk). He referred to this as the will of the people = Triumph of the Will Lebensraum (living space) – This was to become the foreign policy expression of the Aryan myth. It stated that “inferior nations” next-door to Germany would have to make room for the “superior” Germans. This applied to the ‘Slav’ peoples – the Russians to the east of Germany.

27. Rise of Nazism How did a ‘civilized’ nation such as Germany allow for Hitler’s rise? “The great masses of the people…will more easily fall victim to a big lie than to a small one.” Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf Their key ideas would remain: • Ultra-nationalism • Repudiation of the Treaty of Versailles • Fanatical opposition to Communism With the coming of the Depression came widespread unemployment and growth of communist support. Wealthy landowners and manufacturers saw Hitler as their best defence against the communist threat. Most important, was his appeal to the middle classes who dreaded the return to the chaotic conditions of 1923. The bulk of his support would come from this group. Swastika

28. Nazis in the Reichstag ‘Our movement must necessarily be anti-Parliamentary and if it takes part in the parliamentary constitution, it is only for the purpose of destroying this institution from within’ Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf 1933 – Reichstag Fire 1932 Elections see NAZI’s lose seats to Communists • Reichstag Fire blamed on Communists • SA (Hitler’s goons) suspected • Communist Revolution? • Hindenburg annuls civil rights • 4 000 communists arrested 1933 – Hitler appointed Chancellor • Elites believe they can control Hitler • Anti-Liberal & Anti-Communist 1934 – Enabling Act • Hitler able to force bill that dissolves legislature for 4 years • Hitler rules by ‘decree’

29. Joseph Goebbels • Hitler’s Economic Reforms – ‘Deficit Financing’ • ‘Autarky’= Self-dependence & a ‘closed economy’ • Public works projects to improve economy • Autobahn (Highways) • Industrialization • Volkswagen • Planned Economy • Four Year Plans • War Industry • Rearmament • Compulsory military service (1935) • 1936 Olympics (Berlin) • Jesse Owens (4x Gold medal winner) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T1uoB1BHScA

30. Anti-Semitism 1935 – Nuremberg Laws • Excluded Jews from Reich citizenship • Forbidden to marry/ have relations with ‘German or German-related blood’ • Disenfranchised 1938 – Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) • Est. 91 killed • 30 000 arrested, incarcerated in camps • Homes, school, hospitals ransacked • 1 000 synagogues burned • 7 000 businesses destroyed or damaged Q. Was the Holocaust gradually improvised, or was it the execution of a plan in advance? From 1938 until June 1941, the Nazis set out to get rid of the Jews in Germany and its occupied territories. When they were unable to expel most of the Jews, they forced them into ghettos pending other solutions. Kristallnacht, 1938