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The History of Anatomy

The History of Anatomy.

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The History of Anatomy

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  1. The History of Anatomy

  2. “What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving, how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragon of animals!”William Shakespeare, Hamlet 2.2.315-319 Human ANATOMY is the science concerned with the STRUCTURE of the Human Body.

  3. Human Physiology HumanPHYSIOLOGY is the study of the FUNCTION of the Human Body crisnog.esmartdesign.com/ htdman03.gif www.atp.nist.gov/ success/showcase/eai.jpg

  4. The Language of Anatomy Most terms are of Greek(Gk) or Latin (L) derivation: Anatomy: Gk: “to cut up” commonly STRUCTURE Physiology: Gk: “the study of nature” commonly FUNCTION The Rod of Asclepius: a symbol of harmony and balance

  5. Anatomy is the oldest science • humans have always exhibited a curiosity and awareness of their own bodies. • “vital organs” discovered through hunting, and other anatomical structures through the butchering and eating of animals.

  6. Historically: illness = possession by demons and displeasure of the spirits. common thinking in many parts of the world (including European medicine) until the 17th century AD. www.annegwynne.com/.../ weird-woman-promo-a1.jpg www.swagga.com/ gifs/voodoo.jpg www.harrypottermagic.org/ images/evil_s2.gif /url?q=http://www.thebestofecuador.com/shu.jpg

  7. Treatment of Demon Possession “medical treatment” included the casting out of demons through ritual or “bloodletting” to “bleed out” the evil spirits www.valdostavoice.com/.../ Pandaemonium2.jpg www.mtn.org/quack/devices/ images/bloodlet2.gif

  8. Healed holes Trepanation www.scifer.org/images/TrepKnf-22-SkKfPf-96.jpg www.musees-haute-normandie.fr/IMG/jpg/trepana... www.indianer-welt.de/bilder/trep2.jpg • Trepanation, the drilling of a hole in the skull, or removal of a portion of a cranial bone • Increased brain blood leading to more energy and better mood. • Healed holes indicate that patients did survive this radical procedure! • (How do we know that the holes healed & thepatient survived?)

  9. Anatomy & Dissection The history of dissection of human cadavers • greatly enhanced knowledge of anatomy and physiology. • The dissection of a human cadaver is still a hallmark of a medical student’s first year of schooling. www.cs.aau.dk/.../small/dissection-photo.jpg www.arthistory.ed.ac.uk/.../images/vesalius.jpg

  10. Mesopotamia & Egypt Written & physical evidence of medical practices existing 3000 years ago: • Embalming techniques: Mummification • Extensive practice of medicine & surgery • Prescriptions • Treatment of bone fractures www.arabworldbooks.com/ images/Image6.jpg

  11. India Susruta wrote the medical text “Susruta Samhita” in the second century AD. He is referred to as the “Father of Plastic Surgery” primarily for his detailed guide to rhinoplasty or nasal reconstruction www.4to40.com/images/ legends/susruta/susruta_...

  12. China Emperor Huangdi authored a medical textbook “Huangdi Neijing” during the period 2698-2598 BC. Chinese medicine is based upon the balance of two competing life forces “Yin” or Darkness and “Yang” or Lightness www.akupunktur.ch/ BILDER /Shennong.JPG www.compassionatedragon.com/ images/acupunctur... www.physorg.com/newman/ gfx/news/needle3.jpg

  13. YIN (dark) YANG (light)

  14. Ancient Greece Hippocrates (460-377 BC) is considered the “Father of Medicine” • “Hippocratic Oath”: a set of ethical standards for the medical profession still followed by today’s doctors • Established Anatomy as a true science • Natural Events have Natural Causes: • Hippocrates based his medical practice on • careful OBSERVATION of symptoms • keeping of detailed records and Case Histories. • Knowledge thus attained could be used to diagnose future patients that presented with similar symptoms pacs.unica.it/ biblio/lesson1.htm

  15. Hippocrates Taught that if the body’s “Four Humours” were “in balance” then harmony would result and disease would be prevented Four Humours: • Blood: passion: liver • Phlegm: sluggishness: lungs • Yellow Bile: quick to anger: gallbladder • Black Bile: melancholia or depression: spleen

  16. BALANCE = HOMEOSTASIS Whether Yin & Yang or the Four Humours, BALANCE of bodily functions is a commanding theme of Anatomy & Physiology. We now call this BALANCE by the term HOMEOSTASIS.

  17. Imbalance = Disease • A disruption in Homeostasis or Imbalance is the definition of DISEASE

  18. Ancient Greece: Aristotle • Used animal dissections • First known account of Embryology: development of the heart in a chick embryo • Named the Aorta and distinguished arteries from veins • Tutor for Alexander the Great clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc/Aristotle.jpg

  19. Alexandria, Egypt • Alexander the Great founded Alexandria in 332 BC (center of learning) • acceptance of human cadaver dissection and vivisection of convicted criminals • Documents destroyed when the Library burned in 30 BC

  20. Ancient Rome • medicine & surgery was “beneath the notice of a cultured individual” • Greece physicians, trained in Alexandria, advanced the study of anatomy • Constant WARS and GLADIATOR battles provided physicians with much human material

  21. Galen (AD 130-201) • A Greek trained in Alexandria and transplanted to Rome: considered the best physician since Hippocrates • THE most influential writer of ALL TIMES on Medical Subjects: standard for medical treatment for 1500 YEARS! • Physician to Gladiators and Roman emperors: wrote books on Trauma Surgery • Human dissection was outlawed so he used animal dissection as a parallel • Was the first to accurately describe the workings of the human heart

  22. The Middle Ages or Dark Ages • Christian church suppressed science, medical activity stagnated: • Dissections prohibited (crime), even to help with diagnosis during the Plague

  23. Contributions of Islam – Dark Ages • Arabic speaking people were responsible for saving the works of Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen. • Otherwise, these writings would have been lost! • works were returned to Europe and translated into Latin in the 13th Century.

  24. The Renaissance • Rebirth of Science • Establishment of universities & medical schools in Bologna, Salerno, Padua, Montpelier & Paris • Andreas Vesalius (University of Padua, Italy): insisted on human dissections for medical students • Developed ACCURATE medical illustrations & authored the first Atlas of Anatomy ( “Gray’s Anatomy” of 1856 is based upon this work) www.chemheritage.org/.../timeline/vesalius.jpg

  25. TheSurgeon/Barber • During the early Renaissance, surgeries would be completed by “Surgeon/Barbers” • The traditional red and white Barber Pole symbolizes BLOOD AND BANDAGES

  26. Too Many Students, Not Enough Bodies • The popularization of dissection by medical students led to a shortage of dead bodies • Led to grave robbing (profitable crime) and the purposeful murder of vagrants to produce a dead body for sale • US medical schools were supplied by grave robbers until the early 19th century!

  27. Leonardo da Vinci1452-1519 www.gfmer.ch/International_ activities_En/Leon...

  28. Da Vinci • Determined the structure of the brain and the heart – accurately describing the role of the brain’s ventricles and the heart’s valves www.gfmer.ch/.../Images/Leonardo/Womb.jpg

  29. 17th & 18th Centuries • 1628: William Harvey - blood continuously circulated within contained vessels • Leeuwenhoek - invented the microscope • described sperm cells • didn’t understand sperm cells role in fertilization (thought that each sperm cell contained a mini human)

  30. 17th & 18th Centuries: Other Notables • Malpighi - “Father of Histology” – discovered & described the role of capillaries • Spallanzani - both ovum and sperm cell were necessary for conception

  31. 19th Century • Hooke: first coins the term “cell” • Schleiden & Schwann: the “Cell Theory”

  32. 20th & 21st Centuries • advances in diagnostic technology • new, more precise and detailed ways of observing the human body

  33. Diagnostic Tools • Regardless of the technology available (or not) or the century, physicians rely upon the following Diagnostic Tools when examining a patient: • OBSERVATION • AUSCULATION • PALPATION • PERCUSSION • INTERVIEW

  34. OBSERVATION • What does the patient LOOK like? • Skin coloration (pale, flushed, jaundiced?) • Skin texture (dry, sweaty) • Whites of eyes discolored? • Balance • Smell • And so on . . .

  35. AUSCULATION Auscultation is listening to sounds produced inside the body. These include breath sounds, heart sounds, vascular sounds, and bowel sounds. It is used to detect the presence of normal and abnormal sounds and to assess them in terms of loudness, pitch, quality , frequency and duration

  36. PALPATION • Palpation is the feeling of organs with one’s hands: • To determine locus of pain • Swelling of organs (esp. liver) • Abnormal growths

  37. PERCUSSION Percussion is “tapping” on the body to detect changes in sound/pitch – can suggest pockets of fluid (as in lungs) or air (stomach, intestines). “Tapping” may also be done by a “Reflex Hammer” to check presence/strength of reflexes.

  38. INTERVIEW • Information provided by the patient to the physician, through a physician’s careful questioning, combined with the other noted diagnostic tools, can significantly aid that physician in determining a diagnosis and/or the need for additional, more invasive diagnostic tests.

  39. Diagnostic Tools “Translated” for the 19th Century Due to society’s rules, a physician could only “examine” a fully clothed patient. The same diagnostic tools were used, but in the following way (and with a few added): OBSERVATION: of skin and eye color AUSCULATION: listening for breathing irregularities PALPATION: feeling for the pulse SMELLING: sniffing the patient for gangrene TASTING: tasting the patient’s urine – “sweet” urine might indicate a metabolic problem (even today, an untreated diabetic’s urine will smell sugary) INTERVIEW: talk to the patient

  40. War & Medicine • It has been said that “the only thing to benefit from war is surgery.” • Advances in: • Control of Bleeding & Blood Transfusions • Wound Management • Sterilization and Antisepsis • Anesthesia • Suturing techniques • Effective treatment of major tissue trauma • Fracture management • Trauma procedures • All attributable to the desire to save lives damaged by war

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