Introduction: structure of the lectures

1. Introduction: structure of the lectures • Definitions • Chronology • Analysis

2. Definitions 1 • Imperialism: process through which a state attempts to control the economic and/or political and cultural makeup of another state. • Colonialism: the most developed form of Imperialism whereby the controlling state invades another state/region so as to exploit its resources and/or for the purposes of large-scale immigration • Colonialism: extension of territorial control • through either settler colonies or administrative dependencies: indigenous pop. (in)directly ruled or displaced • Imperialism: extension of political control • policy of extending control over foreign entities to acquire and/or maintain empires • Colonialism is one way of achieving more general goal of imperialism

3. Definitions 2 • Colony • Territory under direct political control through the extension of a state’s sovereignty over territory beyond its original borders. • Cf. Dependent Territory: formally cedes part of its sovereignty • Protectorate • P. established through formal agreement placing one state in an unequal relationship with another. The latter ‘protects’ the former (diplomatically, militarily), which accepts specified obligations. • N.B.: UK often also controlled local government. • Condominium • Arrangement in which two (or more) states share sovereignty over a third. E.g. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899-1956)

4. Definitions 3: Mandates & Trusts (20th Century) • Mandates (post WWI) • Def.: League of Nations Covenant (Art. 22) disposes of territories of Ottoman & German Empires defeated in WWI. • Mandates justified with necessary transitional period to ‘prepare’ for independence. • Only Mandatory territory still not independent: Palestine • Trusts (post WII) • UN Charter (ch. 11-13) establishes control of “non self-governing territories” intended to “promote the welfare of the native inhabitants, and advance them toward self-government.” • N.B. Justification for Trusts virtually identical to that for Mandates!

5. Colonialism and the ‘Imperial Age’ • Process was both extensive (in many parts of the world) and intensive • Where: European Empires in the Americas, South and South East Asia, and Africa • Who: Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, Holland, Belgium and to a certain extent Germany and Italy • When: era of exploration from the late 15th Century - colonial empires reach their peak in the 19th Century, formal independence comes mostly after WW2. • How: underpinned by superior military might and apparatus for control – threat and use of violence never far from the surface • Why: motivated by economic interests (new materials to be exploited)

6. Types of Colonial Rule • 1. Economic Companies: East India Trading Co./VOC/ French trading co. • European nations allowed the establishment of private companies that were granted large territories to administrate in the target country • Companies set up own systems of taxation & labour recruitment. • European powers who provided chartersfor these companies • companies took responsibility for all of the expenses related to establishing & administering the colonies. • European countries political benefit of having additional colonies, but not the expense

7. Types of Colonial Rule 1. Economic Companies (cont.) • Companies took responsibility for all of the expenses related to establishing & administering the colonies. • European countries: political benefit of having additional colonies in Africa, but not the expense • companies were eventually unsuccessful in that they were unable to generate consistent profits for their shareholders. Governing a colony was expensive. • By 1924, all Company rule was replaced by various forms of European colonial governance

8. Types of Colonial Rule 2. Direct Rule • French, Belgians, Germans, & Portuguese in governing African colonies. • Centralised administrations (usually in urban centres) , that stressed policies of assimilation. • Colonialists’ intention of "civilising" African societies so they would be more like Europe. • As part of this strategy, colonialists did not try to negotiate governance with indigenous rulers & governments. • Indigenous authorities- subordinate place in these administrations. • Direct rule also used the strategy of "divide and rule" by implementing policies that intentionally weakened indigenous power networks & institutions

9. Types of Colonial Rule 3. Indirect Rule • British used indirect rule to govern their colonies. • This system of governance used indigenous rulers within the colonial administration, although they often maintained an inferior role. • More cooperative model than direct rule • Indirect rule increased divisions between ethnic groups & gave power to certain "big men" who had never had it before in pre-colonial history. • Consequences of these significant changes in social organisation & identity are still being felt today

10. Types of Colonial Rule 4. Settler Rule • Settler rule refers to the type of colonialism (mainly in southern Africa) in which European settlers imposed direct rule on their colonies. • Settler colonies differed from other colonies- a significant number of immigrants from Europe settled in these colonies.

11. Types of Colonial Rule 4. Settler Rule (continued) • To thrive in the colonies, settlers demanded special political & economic rights, & protection. • Security & prosperity for settlers depended on economic exploitation & political oppression of the population that vastly outnumbered the settlers. • Consequently, settler rule was characterised by its harsh policies toward indigenous populations.

12. Types of Colonial Rule 4. Settler Rule (continued) • Southern Africa: South Africa, Southern & Northern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe & Zambia), Angola, Mozambique, & South West Africa (Namibia). • Settlers from Holland, Britain, Germany, & Portugal colonised these areas. • in Algeria, French colony in North Africa. • Australia, New Zealand, North America

13. Chronology: 15th-17th Century • Spain & Portugal divide world: Treaty of Torsedillas (1494) • Portugal: trader colonialism • Informal, settlements/outposts • coast of Africa & Asia; • 1st & longest-lived global empire (1415-1999). • Spain: settler colonialism • try to assimilate local cultures  deeper impact • South & Central America • Debate: Do Amerindians have souls…?…or rights? (slavery!) Portuguese Empire at height, 16th C Spanish Empire at height, 1790

14. Chronology: 18th Century • The Netherlands • trader C: Dutch Indies Trading Cos., followed by state • Rise in patriotism (struggle against Spain) • Britain • Migration: wars of religion  start ‘afresh’ (N.Am.) • Slave trade: agricultural economies (sugar, cotton, tobacco) • Gain: New France (1760), Aus. (1788), NZ (1840) • Lose American colonies (1776-83) • 1757: UK E. India Co. conquers Bengal Dutch Empire, 18th Century • France: Fall of 1st Empire • …Rise of Nationalism (1789+) • Industrial Revolution ‘First’ British Empire, 1760

15. Chronology: 19th Century • Scramble for Africa • ‘Long Depression’ (1873-96) + protectionism↑ • African markets solve deficits • Increasing strategic rivalries • …Informal  formal col. • Britain: mass migration • India: 1857 ‘Mutiny’  direct rule • Africa: ‘Cape to Cairo’ • Divide & Rule: Ireland, India, Zimbabwe, Uganda, Iraq • France • Algeria 1830 (settler/assimilation) • Indochina, French Africa British Empire, 1921 French Empires: First Empire (■15th-18th C) and Second (■19th-20th C)

16. Chronology: 20th Century • UK, France, and WWI • Ottoman fall: Sykes-Picot, 1916 • League of Nations: • Liberal discourse, Colonial Practices… • …Revolutionary consequences (soon) • Italy: Libya, Eritrea, Somalia • Fascism & Roman Empire • Japan: ‘Co-Prosperity Sphere’ • Econ. & ideological reasons • ‘anti-imperial imperialism’ • WW2…beginning of end… • United Nations Trusteeship Council League of Nations Mandates, 1920

17. Military dimensions of Empire • Superiority in military technology is vital, as it allows force projection, and thus leverage: • extract and enforce favourable terms of trade (e.g. ‘Capitulations’) • control vastly superior numbers of native inhabitants. • Naval technology: Control of the seas: Spain & Portugal (15-17th C); Ned., UK, France (18thC) • e.g.: importance of Suez Canal • Industrial revolution military technology (cannons, repeat rifles, coal- & oil-powered commercial & military navies) & mass production capacity • UK, France

18. Economic role of Colonies • trader colonialism: metropolitan states drawn in to protect ‘terms of trade’ (i.e. trading companies’ profits) • Slavery: settler colonialism relied on ‘cheap’ labour, either subjugated locals or ‘imported’ slaves • Trading companies: Granted monopolies by metropole, had own armed forces and independent foreign policy • E.g.: UK’s East India Trading Company • re-structuring local economies • provide raw materials (e.g. Egyptian & American cotton, Caribbean sugar) or luxury goods (S. American gold, Chinese opium) • provide markets for metropolitan economies (Sheffield textile mills) • fund local elites’ reform (Muhammad ’Ali’s new Egyptian army) • Economics, poverty and revolution • industrialisation  (urbanisation & pauperisation) = increase in inequality  social & political tensions • E.g.: Egypt 19-20C, Iran under Shah

19. Religion: Missionaries in 19th century • Relationship between colonialism & religion: • Missionaries opposed the more cruel aspects of colonialism but they did support their country’s role in target country. • This legitimised colonial rule • To spread Christianity • To civilise natives

20. British Colonial Structures

21. Structure of British Colonialism

22. Colonial Administration

23. “Tribal” Administration

24. Traditional GovernmentTwo StructuresNational Systems

25. Imperial Systems

26. Indirect Rule System

27. French Colonialism • Meaning of Assimilation • Direct Rule • Use of Traditional Authorities as French Administrators • Replacement of Traditional Authorities by Soldiers • In Practice Assimilation was Association • British and French administrative Practice not that different in rural Africa

28. French Colonialism • The Concept of Permanent Association • Goal a French Language Union (Political Economic and Social) • Paris and A Single, highly centralized system- World Wide • Facade of Direct Rule

29. French Colonial Structures France Overseas: Indochina, Caribbean North Africa: Tunisia, Morocco, the Department of Algeria L’Afrique Occidentale Francaise (AOF) L’Afrique Equitoriale Francaise (AEF) The Mandates: Togo, Cameroons

30. French Colonial Structures

31. French Colonial Structures

32. French Colonial Structures

33. French Decolonisation • The Concept of the French Union • France and World War II: French Africa and Vichy • Socialist Governments and Socialist Empires • Collapse of Federation, the Loi Cadre of 1956 • DeGaulle and the 1958 Referendum

34. Political impact of Colonialism • Arbitrary boundaries: historically separate, if not antagonistic cultures, languages, ethnicities and political systems • E.g.: Lebanon, Nigeria, Maghreb, Afghanistan –cf. Kurdistan’s split • Loss of ‘experience’: robbed of organic political development for centuries • Strategies of rule • divide & rule  internal divisions both before and after independence • India, Iraq • Assimilation (settler colonialism, longer-term effects on indigenous cultures) • Algeria, North & South America, Australia, Southern Africa • Association (trading outposts, shorter-term effects) • Macao

35. Dilemmas/ambiguities of ‘modernity’ • How to separate ‘modernity’ from Westernisation and ‘Westoxification’ (cultural imperialism)? • Loss of language and values – can they be retrieved after centuries? • ‘Modernisation’ equated with ‘Westernisation’, and used as excuse for domination by colonial powers and local elites… • E.g. Iranian Revolution, ‘Beijing consensus’

36. How was colonialism justified by invaders in ‘moral’ terms? • Racial arguments: were native populations subhuman/less human? No moral obligations (e.g.slavery) • Religious arguments: non-Christians were worth less in the eyes of God and they had less moral worth • Cultural arguments: inferior cultures would benefit from influence of superior ones: colonialism carried a ‘civilising mission’

37. Conclusion • Timeline • From trade to settlement and industry • Self determination (UN) is a recent concept • Hidden world history? • History written by the victors of colonialism, myths of the benefits of colonialism, silenced voices of the colonised • Aspects & Consequences • Military, Economic, Political legacies are clear: will become apparent in later parts of the course • The Contradictions of Decolonisation... • Decolonisation is successful but emancipation is partial • Is colonialism replaced by a more subtle form of Neo-Imperialism?

38. IR1001 – Week 2Colonialism Dr. C. Heristchi F43 EWB, c.heristchi@abdn.ac.uk Consultation times: Wednesdays 10am-noon