Biology

1. Biology EOCT Review

2. Types of Cells Prokaryotic – no nucleus Eukaryotic – have a nucleus

3. Types of Cells Cell membrane- security fence (protects the cell by controlling what enters and exits the cell) Nucleus-control center Ribosomes-make proteins Golgi- post office (packages proteins for storage or secretion) Lysosomes- clean-up crew (eat stuff in the cell that needs disposed of) Mitochondria- power house (makes energy for the cell) Vacuoles- storage Cell Organelles (only in plants) Cell wall- protection and support for the plant cell Chloroplasts- capture energy from the sun and convert it to chemical energy through photosynthesis

4. Movement in and out of the cell • Diffusion • Osmosis • Facilitated Diffusion • Active Transport

5. Diffusion • movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration • Does not require energy • Diffusion stops when concentration on both sides equal (if crossing a membrane) or when there is a uniform distribution of particles

6. Osmosis- the passive transport of water • Osmosis = the diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane • Plasma membrane permeable to water but not to solute • Solute = dissolved particle • Solvent = liquid medium in which particles may be dissolved • Water moves from solution with lower concentration of dissolved particles to solution with higher concentration of dissolved particles • Water moves from dilute solution to concentrated solution

7. Solution types relative to the cell • Hypertonic Solution: Solute concentration higher than cell • More dissolved particles outside of cell than inside of cell • Hyper = more • Water moves out of cell into solution • Cell shrinks • Hypotonic Solution: Solute concentration lower than cell • Less dissolved particles outside of cell than inside of cell • Hypo = less • Water moves into cell from solution • Cell expands (and may burst) • Isotonic Solution: Solute concentration equal to that of cell • No net water movement

8. Facilitated Diffusion • Allows diffusion of large, membrane insoluble compounds such as sugars and amino acids • Does not require energy (passive) • Highly Selective • Substance binds to membrane-spanning transport protein

9. Active Transport -Movement across membrane against concentration or electrochemical gradient -Movement from low to high concentrations -Used to pump specific compounds in or out of the cell -Requires energy to overcome the concentration and electrochemical gradient

10. Cell Energy Photosynthesis – occurs in chloroplast Respiration – occurs in the mitochondria

11. Cell Chemistry

12. Enzymes • Enzymes are proteins that work as a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction, but does not participate in the reaction

13. DNA vs. RNA • DNA • Double stranded • Contains genetic information needed to make proteins • Base pairs: Adenine-Thymine; Guanine-Cytosine • RNA • Single stranded • Makes proteins • Base Pairs: Adenine-Uracil; Guanine-Cytosine

14. Protein Synthesis Transcription- messenger RNA (mRNA) copies the DNA in the nucleus and carries it out to the cytoplasm Translation-occurs on the ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA) brings the nucleotides to the ribosome so the correct protein can be made

15. DNA Replication • DNA strand is broken and each single strand serves as a template to be copied to make a new double strand • Mutations- changes in the genetic material caused by incorrect copying of the strand during replication • Examples: Insertions, Deletions, Substitutions • Mutagenic factors – outside influences that cause DNA mutations

16. Cellular Reproduction (Mitosis vs. Meiosis)

17. Genetic Terms to know • Allele-gene • Dominant- trait that is seen over others; written as a capital letter • Recessive- trait that is not seen with a dominant trait, but will appear if it is paired with another recessive trait; written as a lower case letter • Incomplete or blended dominance- neither gene is dominant • Homozygous- alleles are the same; example: TT or tt • Heterozygous-alleles are different; example: Tt • Phenotype-expression of a trait; example: TT means the individual is tall • Genotype-genes that make up a trait; example tt

18. Monohybrid Cross-punnett square is used to show a parental cross of one trait • Example: Being able to roll your tongue is a dominant trait. If a woman is homozygous dominant for this trait and marries a man that is heterozygous for this trait, what is the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their children?

19. Tongue Rolling Monohybrid Cross • 100 % will be able to roll their tongue • 50% homozygous for tongue rolling • 50% heterozygous for tongue rolling.

20. Classification • identification, naming, and grouping of organisms into a formal system based on similarities such as internal and external anatomy, physiological functions, genetic makeup, or evolutionary history. • The following system is used to classify organisms: • Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species • Example: Domestic dog would be classified as follows • Kingdom: Animalia • Phylum: Chordata • Subphylum: Vertebrata • Class: Mammalia • Order: Carnivora • Suborder: Caniformia • Family: Canidae • Genus: Canis • Species: Canis lupus • notice the name of a species is given by its genus and species

21. Six Kingdoms • Archaebacteria • Eubacteria • Protists • Fungi • Plants • Animals

22. Archaebacteria • unicellular bacteria found in extreme environments; prokaryotic; no nucleus; do not use oxygen

23. Eubacteria • Unicellular; found in many places; prokaryotic; no nucleus; use oxygen

24. Protists • unicellular or multicellular; can be plant-like, animal-like, or fungus-like; do not have true leaves, stems, or roots

25. Fungi • unicellular or multicellular; can not move; often decomposers

26. Plants • multicellular; cannot move; use photosynthesis to make oxygen; have true leaves, roots, and stems

27. Animals • multicellular; consumers (heterotrophs); can move; use oxygen

28. Characteristics of Life 1. Living Things are Composed of Cells 2. Living Things Have Different Levels of Organization 3. Living Things Use Energy 4. Living Things Respond To Their Environment 5. Living Things Grow 6. Living Things Reproduce 7. Living Things Adapt To Their Environment * Viruses are not considered living things because they cannot meet these criteria without being attached to another living thing.

29. Ecology Organization • Organism- individual member of a species • Ex: deer • Population- group of the same species in a specific area (habitat) and plays a particular role (niche) • Ex: # of deer in Stephens County • Community- interaction of several different populations in an area • Ex: deer along with rabbits, oak trees, squirrels, etc. • Ecosystem- all living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) factors in an area • Ex: the whole forest • *formed by succession. • * Succession is a slow process that changes the species that inhabit an area • Ex) A plowed field eventually turns into a forest  • Biome- Large areas on the earth that contain similar climate, plants, or animals • Ex: Temperate forest • Biosphere- any part of the earth that sustains life • Ex: Earth

30. Symbiosis - Relationships between species in an ecosystem

31. Types of Symbiosis • Mutualism -both species benefit • Commensalism - one species benefits, the other is unaffected • Parasitism- one species benefits, the other is harmed • Competition - neither species benefits • Neutralism - both species are unaffected

32. Biomes • Tundra • Taiga • Deciduous forest • Grassland • Desert • Tropical Forest

33. Tundra • Climate • Cold • Plants • No trees, grasses, low shrubs • Animals • Polar bear • Caribou • Mountain goats • Movie Example • Rudolph

34. Taiga • Climate • Cold • Plants • Evergreens • Animals • Moose • Elk • Grizzly bear • Movie Example

35. Deciduous Forest • Climate • Four distinct seasons • Plants • Hardwoods • Animals • Squirrel • Deer • Coyote • Movie Example • Bambi

36. Grasslands • Climate • Moderate climate • Unevenly distributed rainfall • Plants • Grasses • Animals • Buffalo • Antelope • Movie Example • Lion King

37. Desert • Climate • Dry • Plants • Sparse • Cacti • Animals • Mostly nocturnal • Snakes • Lizards • Movie Example • Aladdin

38. Tropical Rain Forest • Climate • Warm and rainy • Plants • Large trees • Vines • Animals • Elephant • Tiger • Chimpanzee • Movie Example • Jungle Book

39. Trophic Levels • Primary producers (organisms that make their own food from sunlight are the base of every food chain - these organisms are called autotrophs. • Primary consumers are animals that eat primary producers; they are also called herbivores (plant-eaters). • Secondary consumers eat primary consumers. They are carnivores (meat-eaters) and omnivores (animals that eat both animals and plants). • Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers. • Quaternary consumers eat tertiary consumers. • Food Chains- sequence of who eats whom in an ecosystem, each level of the food chain is known as a trophic level. As you move up the food chain or pyramid the biomass and energy at that level decreases.

40. Example of Food Chain

41. Example of a food Web

42. Carbon Cycle • Plants use photosynthesis to change carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen. • Animals use oxygen to complete respiration. In this process they return CO2 to the air. Some CO2 returns back to the earth when animals die and are fossilized (fossil fuels). CO2 is released when these fossil fuels are burned.

43. Water Cycle • Water is moved from the atmosphere to the earth and back to the atmosphere. • Rain hits the earth and runs or seeps into streams, lakes, and oceans. The sun heats this water up and causes it to turn into water vapor. It then rises in the atmosphere where it turns into clouds. As it cools, it turns back into rain (precipitation).

44. Nitrogen Cycle • Nitrogen must pass through this cycle so it can be used by plants • Nitrogen makes up 79% of Earth's atmosphere, but most organisms cannot use nitrogen gas (N2). N2 enters the trophic system through a process called nitrogen fixation. Bacteria found on the roots of some plants can fix N2 to organic molecules, making proteins. Again, animals get their nitrogen by eating plants. Animals release nitrogen as a waste product. When they do this, some is used by bacteria through assimilation to convert it to proteins and some is released back as nitrogen gas through denitrification.

45. Theory of Evolution • Charles Darwin- considered the Father of Modern Evolution • Evolution- is the change in a species over time. However, it is not a single organism that changes but the genetic material of the species that changes over time. • Fossil records have provided information on organisms’ evolutionary change. • Microevolution- Evolution that occurs within the species level. It results from genetic variation and natural selection within a population of organisms. • Macroevolution- is evolution that occurs between different species. It focuses on how groups of organismschange (i.e., the splitting of a species into two species).

46. Mechanisms of evolution • natural selection- is the process by which organisms that are best suited to their environment survive and pass their genetic traits on to their offspring. Adaptation is a key concept in natural selection. Natural selection can change the inherited characteristics in a population and possibly even result in a new species. • Environment and variations- natural variations within a population allows for some individuals to survive over others in a changing environment. This natural variation sometimes leads to the formation of a new species (speciation). Gene flow- change in the occurrence of genes in a population. Gene flow occurs when an individual leaves a population (emigration) or enters a population (immigration). Mutations- random changes in DNA. Mutations that benefit a species lead to furthering that species instead of the original one. Genetic Drift- provides random changes in the occurrences of genes through random chance events like natural disasters, disease, or starvation. A large population is reduced to only a few individuals. Interbreeding between a small number of individuals causes the genes of subsequent generations to be very similar.

47. Patterns of Evolution Convergent Evolution- explains how unrelated species develop similar characteristics Divergent Evolution- suggests that many species develop from a common ancestor

48. Types of Behavior • Innate- genetically control and inherited Animal examples: migration, territoriality, courting, hibernating Plant example: tropisms (growth of a plant in response to a stimulus) • Learned- a result of experience example: you touch a hot pan and it burns you, you don’t touch it again