Questions on Lecture III

1. Questions on Lecture III sociological psychological Halliday • Saussure looks at language from the ____________ point of view, Chomsky looks at language from the _____________ point of view and _______ looks at it from the functional point of view. • _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a community. • ___________ refers to the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. • Competence is a form of “knowing”; ________________ is a set of possibilities for “doing”. • Linguistics involves such branches as ___________, __________, ___________, ______, _________. Langue Competence linguistic potential phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics

2. Questions on Lecture III × √ × • Langue is not suitable for study. • Parole is always a naturally occurring event. • Langue is subject to personal and situational limits. • A person's competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. • A speaker's performance does not always match his competence. • The object of study is the ideal speaker's competence. • Linguistic potential actually refers to a lot of possibilities to choose from. • The linguistic potential vs actual linguistic behavior distinction is one between what a person “knows” and what he “does”. √ √ √ √ √

3. Phonetics

4. 1.What is Phonetics? • the science which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. • Those speech sounds are supposed to express one’s thoughts or feelings in a systematic way. the air The speaker the hearer articulatory phonetics acoustic phonetics auditory phonetics

5. 1.What is Phonetics? Articulatory phonetics: how speakers produce speech sounds Auditory phonetics: how sounds are perceived Acoustic phonetics: the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.

6. 2. The Vocal Organs • or the speech organs, are organs of human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds.

7. 2. The Vocal Organs （1/2）上下唇 upper/lower lip （3/4）上下齿upper/lower teeth （5）齿龈 teeth ridge (alveolus) （6）硬腭 hard palate （7）软腭 soft palate (velum) （8）小舌 uvula （9）鼻腔 nasal cavity （10）口腔 oral cavity （11）咽腔 pharyngeal cavity （12）舌尖 tip of tongue （13）舌叶 blade of tongue （14）舌面前/舌面中 front & middle （15）舌面后或舌跟 back of tongue （16）会厌 epiglottis （17）食道 oesophagus （18）气管 trachea/windpipe （19）声带 vocal cords （20）喉结 larynx/Adam’s apple 9 6 7 5 10 3 4 14 13 8 1 2 12 15 11 16 17 19 18 20

8. 2. The Vocal Organs • Thevocal organs of a human being are contained in three important cavities: • The pharyngeal cavity: the throat • The oral cavity: the mouth • The nasal cavity: the nose.

9. 2. The Vocal Organs • The pharyngeal cavity • The initiator of the air-stream Implosives are produced in Sindhi which uses the pharynx air to push down the larynx so that the air is sucked into the mouth.

10. 2.1 The pharyngeal cavity • The vocal cords The vocal cords make the first possible modification of the air stream.

11. 2.1 The pharyngeal cavity • The vocal cords

12. 2.1 The pharyngeal cavity • The vocal cords have three functions in speech: • A. closed tightly: • glottal stop [ʔ] • The sound is inaudible, but has effects on surrounding segments. • In English, it often occurs initially to pronounce a word beginning with a vowel, like “idiom”.

13. 2.1 The pharyngeal cavity--- the vocal cords • B. brought together • Vibration • Voice • Voiced sounds • [b], [m], [z] • Voicing: pronouncing a word (usu. a vowel or a voiced consonants) by vibrating the vocal cords. • The Pitch of a sound depends on the rate of vibration of the vocal cords. • The vocal cords of male adults are longer than those of female, men’s sounds are lower than women adults’.

14. 2.1 The pharyngeal cavity---the vocal cords • C. drawn wide apart: • [h] • Voiceless sounds. • [f], [s], [p]

15. 2.2 The oral cavity （1/2）upper/lower lip （3/4）upper/lower teeth （5）teeth ridge/alveolus （6）hard palate （7）soft palate (velum) （8）uvula （9）oral cavity （12）tip of tongue （13）blade of tongue （14）front & middle （15）back of tongue 6 7 5 3 4 14 13 8 1 2 12 15

16. 2.3 The nasal cavity The nasal cavity

17. 3. Consonants • Speech sounds as two types: • The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air-stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants. • The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. • The consonants are articulated by obstruction of different vocal organs and of various degrees, the former called Places of articulation and the latter as Manners of articulation.

18. 3. Consonants • The place of articulation • The point where a consonant is made. • Ten important ones • Bilabial: the obstruction of the airstream is made by the two lips, like [p], [b], [m] in “pen”, “mine”; • Labiodental: the obstruction of the airstream is made by the lower lip and upper front teeth, like [f], [v] • Dental: the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth, like [ ], [ð] • Alveolar: the obstruction is formed between the blade of the tongue and the teeth-ridge, e.g. [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l] in “light”, “night”

19. 3. Consonants • Places of articulation • Retroflex: the obstruction is formed between the underside of the tongue tip and the back of the teeth-ridge, like [r] in “car” by Americans • Palato-alveolar: the obstruction is formed when the blade of the tongue is raised towards the back of the teeth ridge, like [tʃ], [d3], [ʃ], [ʒ] • Palatal: the obstruction is formed between the front of the tongue and the hard palate, e.g. [j] in “yes” • Velar: the obstruction is formed between the back of the tongue and the soft palate, e.g. [k], [g], [ŋ]

20. 3. Consonants • Places of articulation • Uvular: the obstruction is formed between the back of the tongue and the uvular, as [r] in French word “rouge” • Glottal: the obstruction is caused by the vocal coeds, as glottal stop [ʔ]; [h] in the English word “her”. • Labial- velar: the simultaneous use of two places of articulation, eg [w] is the production of two lips together with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.

21. 3. Consonants • the manner of articulation • Plosive: obstructed both in the oral and nasal tracts, and then suddenly released; bilabial [p, b]; alveolar [t, d]; velar [k, g]; glottal [ʔ]; an oral stop • Nasal: obstructed in the oral tract but not in the nasal tract; bilabial [m]; alveolar [n]; velar [ŋ]; a nasal stop • Trill: when a flexible organ quickly touches and leaves a firmer surface repeatedly. [R] in Dutch and French; • Tap/flap: the obstruction only lasts for a very short time. It is simply a very rapid articulation of a plosive. In English, an alveolar tap is often used when “r” occurs in intervocalic positions, like “sorry, carry”; In American English, also replaces [t, d, n] in “latter, tanner, ladder”.

22. 3. Consonants • the manner of articulation • Lateral: obstructed along the center of the oral tract, and going through the mouth laterally; [l] in “low, ball”; a lateral approximant. • Fricative: two vocal organs brought close together so that the airstream becomes turbulent; labiodental [f, v], dental[ , ð], alveolar [s, z], palatal-alveolar [ʃ, ʒ]; sibilants • Approximant: the space between two approximating vocal organs is slightly wider than for a fricative, wide enough to avoid causing friction; [r] in “red, right”; [j] in “young” and [w] in “we”; semi-vowels • Affricate: involving two manners of articulation; eg: [tʃ, dʒ] are a combination of a plosive and fricative.

23. 3. Chart of English Consonants 23

24. 3. Classification of Consonants • Five dimensions to describe a consonant: • The state of the vocal cords (voiced or voiceless); • The place of articulation; • The course of the escaping of the air-stream (central or lateral); • The position of the soft palate (oral or nasal); • The manner of articulation. • 1 2 3 4 5 • [f]: • [n]: • [l]: voiceless labiodental (central) (oral) fricative voiced alveolar (central) (nasal) plosive voiced alveolar lateral (oral) (approximant)

25. 4. Vowels • The English vowels can roughly be classified into two types: monophthongs and diphthongs. • The description of the monophthongs mainly depends on the four factors: • The position of the tongue; • The openness of the mouth; • The shape of the lips, and • The length of the vowels.

26. 4. The English Vowels • The position of the tongue: front, central,& back • The front vowels: [i:], [i], [e], [æ], [a] • The central vowels: [ə:], [ə], [ʌ] • The back vowels: [u:], [u], [ɔ:], [ɔ], [a:] • The openness of the mouth: • Close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels. • The close vowels: [i:], [i], [u:], [u] • The semi-close vowels: [e], [ə:]

27. 4. The English Vowels • The semi-open vowels: [ə], [ɔ:] • The open vowels: [æ], [a], [ʌ], [ɔ], [a:] Central Back Front i: u: Close i u ə: Semi-close e ə ɔ: Semi-open ɔ æ ʌ a: Open a

28. 4. The English Vowels • The shape of the lips: rounded or unrounded. • In English, all the front and central vowels are unrounded vowels • All the back vowels, excluded [a:] are rounded vowels. • The length of the vowels: • The vowels with a colon are called long vowels; • The vowels without a colon are called short vowels.

29. 4. Vowels • We can now describe the English vowels in this way: • [i:]: • [u]: • [ə]: • [ɒ]: high front tense unrounded vowel high back lax rounded vowel mid central lax unrounded vowel low back lax rounded vowel