Chapter 7 Motivation

1. Chapter 7Motivation

2. Learning outcomes You should learn to: Define the motivation process Describe early motivation theories Explain how goals motivate people Identify ways to design motivating jobs Explain how goal-setting theory impacts performance & rewards.

3. Learning outcomes Describe the motivational implications of equity theory, expectancy theory & self-efficacy theory. Describe current motivation issues facing managers Identify management practices that are likely to lead to more motivated employees

4. What is Motivation? the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal. Intensity- how hard a person tries direction - efforts should be channeled in a direction that benefits the organizational goals. Persistence- determines how long a person can maintain effort. Unsatisfied needs creates tension that stimulates drive which leads to search behavior.

5. The Motivation Process Unsatisfied Need Tension Drives Search Behavior Satisfied Need Reduction of Tension

6. Internal Focus on variables within individual that lead to motivation and behavior. Process Emphasize nature of interaction between individual and environment. External Focus on elements in the environment to explain motivation and behavior. THREE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

7. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory each level in hierarchy must be satisfied before the next is activated once a need is substantially satisfied it no longer motivates behavior theory received wide recognition little research support for the validity of the theory Early Theories Of Motivation

8. Lower-order needs - largely satisfied externally physiological - food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction safety - security and protection from physical and emotional harm assurance that physiological needs will be satisfied Higher-order needs - largely satisfied internally social - affection, belongingness, acceptance esteem - internal factors like self-respect, autonomy external factors like status, recognition, attention self-actualization - achieving one’s potential Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

9. Lowest to highest order Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

10. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Theory X - assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, want to avoid responsibility, and need to be closely controlled assumed that lower-order needs dominated Theory Y - assumes that workers can exercise self-direction, accept and actually seek out responsibility, and consider work to be a natural activity assumed that higher-order needs dominated no evidence that either set of assumptions is valid no evidence that managing on the basis of Theory Y makes employees more motivated

11. Theory X/Y • Theory X: Workers are costs • Theory Y: Workers are assets

12. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Hygiene factor Motivation factor Both are work conditions, but each addresses a different part of an employee’s experience

13. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory intrinsic characteristics consistently related to job satisfaction motivator factors energize employees extrinsic characteristics consistently related to job dissatisfaction hygiene factors don’t motivate employees proposed dual continua for satisfaction and dissatisfaction theory enjoyed wide popularity influenced job design

14. Motivation factors increase job satisfaction • Company policy and administration • Supervision • Interpersonal relations • Working conditions • Salary • Status • Security • Achievement • Achievement recognition • Work itself • Responsibility • Advancement • Growth Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction Motivation–Hygiene Theory of Motivation

15. Contrasting Views Of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction Traditional View Satisfaction Dissatisfaction Herzberg’s View Motivators Hygienes SatisfactionNo Satisfaction No Dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

16. Motivation-Hygiene Combinations (Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)

17. Implications… • You have a RIGHT to be dissatisfied about your work conditions. • As an employee, you have a RESPONSIBILITY to communicate your dissatisfaction and work to help improve the conditions. • As a manager, you have a RESPONSIBILITY to continuously improve the work conditions within your control. Your best source of information about what to improve and how to improve it are your employees.

18. McClelland’s Theory 3categories of needs • Achievement • Power • Affiliation

19. Three-Needs Theory - McClelland need for achievement (nAch) - drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, and to strive to succeed do not strive for trappings and rewards of success prefer jobs that offer personal responsibility want rapid and unambiguous feedback set moderately challenging goals avoid very easy or very difficult tasks high achievers don’t necessarily make good managers focus on their own accomplishments good managers emphasize helping others to accomplish their goals

20. need for power (nPow) Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people. Personal power versus social power. People high in (nPower) prefer work that: Involves control over other persons. Has an impact on people and events. Brings public recognition and attention.

21. need for affiliation (nAff): desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. • People high in (nAff) prefer work that: • Involves interpersonal relationships. • Provides for companionship • Brings social approval.

22. Need Theory What combination of needs are present in the best managers? The managers with high in need of power.

23. Individual–Organizational Exchange

24. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

25. Self Determination Theory:Basic principles 1 • People prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so when a previously enjoyed task feels more like an obligation it undermines motivation. • Studies then questioned whether intrinsic motivation could be undermined by the use of extrinsic rewards • Self determination theory proposed that variations in individuals' feelings of competence and perceptions of autonomy will produce variations in intrinsic motivation.

26. Self Determination Theory:Basic principles 2 • Providing individuals with rewards for their participation in an already interesting activity often leads to a decrease in intrinsic motivation. • This is called the ‘over justification effect’ • Goal setting is effective in improving motivation if rewards are provided for achieving the goals along with extrinsic rewards like verbal praise and feedback about competence. • Rewards and deadlines diminish motivation if people see it as coercive. • When goals are pursued because of an intrinsic interest, rather than extrinsic reasons ( money, status etc.) individuals will be more satisfied and perform better.

27. Self Determination Theory: Controlling and informational functions of rewards Cognitive Evaluation Theory states that rewards are likely to serve two main functions: • Information function. If the reward provides information about the individuals' competence then it is quite likely that intrinsic motivation can be enhanced with rewards. • Controlling function. If the rewards are seen to be controlling behaviour (i.e., the goal is to obtain the reward rather than participate for intrinsic reasons), then withdrawal of the reward is likely to lead to subsequent decreases in intrinsic motivation.

28. Possible links between rewards and intrinsic motivation in exercise

29. Goals: Definition and Background • Goal • what an individual is trying to accomplish • Management by objectives • management system incorporating participation in decision making, goal setting, and feedback.

30. Goal Setting Read an article by Latham and Locke on : “Goal Setting-A Motivational Technique that Works”

31. Goal-Setting Theory intention to work towards a goal is a major source of job motivation specific goals increase performance difficult goal, when accepted, results in higher performance than does an easy goal specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of “do your best” participation in goal setting is useful reduces resistance to accepting difficult goals increases goal acceptance

32. Goal-Setting Theory (cont.) feedback is useful helps identify discrepancies between what has been accomplished and what needs to be done self-generated feedback is a powerful motivator contingencies in goal-setting theory goal commitment - theory presupposes that individual is determined to accomplish the goal most likely to occur when: goals are made public individual has an internal locus of control goals are self-set rather than assigned

33. Goal-Setting Theory (cont.) contingencies (cont.) self-efficacy - an individual’s belief that s/he is capable of performing a task higher self-efficacy, greater motivation to attain goals national culture - theory is culture bound main ideas align with North American cultures goal setting may not lead to higher performance in other cultures

34. MBO PROGRAMS:Putting Goal-Setting T. Into Practice • Converting overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for organizational units and individual members. • Four ingredients common to MBO programs: • Goal specification. • Participation in decision making. • An explicit time period. • Performance feedback. • Failures may come from: • Unrealistic expectations regarding results. • Lack of commitment by top management. • Cultural incompatibilities.

35. Relationship between Goal Difficulty and Performance

36. Guidelines for Job Redesign

37. Managerial Actions for Enhancing Goal Commitment 1. Provide valued outcomes for goal accomplishment. 2. Raise employees’self-efficacy about meeting goals by: • Providing adequate training • Role modeling desired behaviors and actions • Persuasively communicating confidence in the employees ability to attain the goal.

38. Managerial Actions for Enhancing Goal Commitment 3. Have employees make a public commitment to the goal. 4. Communicate an inspiring vision and explain how individual goals relate to accomplishing the vision. 5 Allow employees to participate in setting the goals.

39. Managerial Actions for Enhancing Goal Commitment 6. Behave supportively rather than punitively. 7. Break a long-term goal (i.e., a yearly goal) into short-term sub-goals. 8. Ensure that employees have the resources required to accomplish the goal.

40. Self–Efficacy Theory... Bandura Self–Efficacy The perception of one’s ability to perform a task successfully is really a situation-specific form of self-confidence.

41. Self–Efficacy Sources

42. Expectancy Theory explains motivation in terms of an individual’s perception of the performance process.

43. Two Basic Notions of Expectancy Theory People expect certain outcomes of behavior and performance. People believe that the effort they put forth is related to the performance they achieve and the outcomes they receive.

44. Key Constructs of Expectancy Theory Valence – value or importance placed on a particular reward Expectancy – belief that effort leads to performance Instrumentality – belief that performance is related to rewards

45. states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual Expectancy (effort-performance linkage) - perceived probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance Instrumentality (performance-reward linkage) - strength of belief that performing at a particular level is instrumental in attaining an outcome Valence - attractiveness or importance of the potential outcome Expectancy Theory

46. Expectancy Theory (cont.) theory emphasizes rewards organizational rewards must align with the individual’s wants no universal principle for explaining what motivates individuals managers must understand why employees view certain outcomes as attractive or unattractive most comprehensive and widely accepted explanation of employee motivation

47. Expectancy Model of Motivation I V E

48. Instrumentality:“What are my chances of getting various outcomes if I achieve my goal? Valence:“How much do I value these outcomes?” A General Model of Expectancy Theory Outcome 1 High Effort Performance Goal Outcome 2 Expectancy:“What are my chances of reaching my goal if I work hard?” Outcome 3 Decision To Exert Effort Expectancy:“What are my chances of reaching my goal if I slack off?” Outcome 1 Low Effort Outcome 2 Performance Goal Outcome 3

49. Simplified Expectancy Model Individual Effort Individual Performance Organizational Rewards Individual Goals A B C = Effort-performance linkage A = Performance-reward linkage B = Attractiveness C

50. Adam’s Theory of Inequity People are motivated when they find themselves in situations of inequity or unfairness. To look for inequity, people consider their inputs and their outcomes.