Dynasties, Conquest, and Faith

1. Dynasties, Conquest, and Faith The Rise of Islam

2. The Caliph • When Mohammad died unexpectedly in 632, Abu Bakr, one of his first followers in Mecca, became caliph • A caliph was the head of state, military commander, chief judge, and religious leader • He ruled an empire but also made pronouncements on religious doctrine • The Islamic government was a theocracy, a government ruled by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as being divinely guided

3. The Caliphate • Because it was ruled by a caliph, the theocratic Islamic Empire was referred to as a caliphate • While the caliphs began to behave more like hereditary rulers, there was no clear line of succession • The lack of clear succession caused a great deal of trouble down the road

4. The First Four Caliphs • Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali • The last of the four, Ali, was assassinated and was succeeded by his son, Hasan • But under pressure from a prominent family in Mecca, Hasan relinquished his title, making way for the establishment of the Umayyad Dynasty • This dynasty would enlarge the Islamic Empire dramatically, but it would also intensify conflict with the Byzantine and Persian Empires for almost a century

5. The Umayyad Dynasty • The capital was moved to Damascus, Syria, although Mecca remained the spiritual center • Arabic became the official language of government • Conquered subjects were “encouraged” to convert to Islam in order to establish a common faith throughout the empire • Those who chose not to convert were forced to pay a tax (jizya)

6. Expansion • The Islamic Empire grew enormously under the Umayyads, extending as far as northern African and into Spain, where they ruled the southern Iberian peninsula from the city of Córdoba • Attacked Constantinople numerous times but failed to overthrow Byzantine regime • Charles Martel, a Frankish leader, stopped the Muslim advance towards Paris • The Islamic Empire never flourished in Europe beyond parts of Spain and southern Italy

7. Successes But Problems • Despite successes (the Dome of the Rock was built in Jerusalem and Córdoba was one of the richest cities in Europe), problems with succession started to emerge • Eventually, the Muslims split into two camps, Shi’ite and Sunni

8. Shi’ite (Shia Islam) An Sunni Islam • Shi’ite (Shia) Islam holds that Mohammad’s son-in-law, Ali, was the rightful heir to the empire, based on Mohammad’s comments to Ali • Sunnis, in contrast, though they hold Ali in high esteem, do not believe that he and his hereditary line are the chosen successors • Sunnis believe that the leaders of the empire should be drawn from a broad base of the people

9. Decline • As the Shia began to assert themselves more dramatically, the Umayyad Dynasty went into decline, and ultimate demise • Against the forces of Abu al-Abbas (a descendent of Mohammad’s uncle who was supported by the descendents of Ali, the Shia, and the Mawali – non-Arab Muslims, the Umayyad Empire was defeated • It was replaced by the Abbasid Dynasty around 750 in all areas except Spain

10. The Abbasid Dynasty • From 750 to 1258 • Until the Islamic Empire was defeated by the Mongols • Had ups and downs but experienced a golden age, from the early to mid-ninth century, during which the arts and sciences flourished • Built a magnificent capital at Baghdad, which became one of the great cultural centers of the world

11. The Abbasids built a magnificent capital at Baghdad, which became one of the great cultural centers of the world

12. Trade • The empire was built around trade • Merchants introduced the unique idea of credit to the empire’s trade mechanisms to free them of the burden – and the danger – of carrying coins • Merchants also developed a system of itemized receipts and bills, innovations that were later used in Europe and elsewhere

13. Manufacturing • Manufacturing played an important role in the expansion of the Islamic Empire • Steel was produced for use in swords

14. Islamic Advancements in Medical and Mathematics Field • Mohammad al-Razi published a massive medical encyclopedia, unlike anything compiled before it • Islamic mathematicians expanded the knowledge they had learned from India; their contributions are noteworthy in algebra

15. Learning the Art of Paper • The Abbasid army had the good fortune to defeat the Tang Chinese army during the Battle of Talus River in 751 CE • Fight for control of the Silk Road trading posts in Central Asia • Though relatively unimportant (Muslims won), Chinese prisoners of war were carrying paper money • Abbasids figured out how to make paper and could continue one of their most important activities – stocking libraries and universities with scholarship from all over the world

16. Location at Crossroads • Location of Muslim empire at the crossroads of Europe and Asia allowed to monopolize trade routes • Cosmopolitan cities of the Islamic caliphs thrived on trade, international scholars, and expansion, both military and cultural

17. Preservation of Greek And Roman Learning • Despite the hostility between the European and Islamic worlds, the Islamic Empire is credited with playing a significant role in preserving Western culture (like the Byzantines) • Muslims encountered the classic writings of ancient Athens and Rome, including those of Plato and Aristotle, and translated into Arabic

18. Crusades and Rediscovery • Muslims and Christians battled for control of the Levant (present-day Israel, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and points north and south) during the Crusades • Europe found its own history among the other treasures preserved in Arabic libraries and museums

19. Often Tolerant • Muslims were often tolerant of the local customs of the areas they conquered – although Christians and Jews were often persecuted in the Levant • And though a theocracy, its more flexible approach contributed to rapid growth of adherents to Islam

20. Sufis • Sufis, Islamic mystics, were its most effective missionaries • Sufis stressed a personal relationship with Allah • This made Islam highly adaptable to different circumstances • By allowing, and even encouraging, followers to practice their own ways to revere Allah, and by tolerating others who placed Allah in the framework of other beliefs, Sufis succeeded in converting large numbers of people to Islam

21. Women and Islam • The Qu’ran, the sacred book of Islam, established between 651 and 652, somewhat changed the status of women • While women remained subservient to men and under their direction and control, women began to be treated with more dignity, had some legal rights, and were considered equal before Allah

22. If a man divorced his wife, he would have to return her dowry (the money and property from her father that she brought with her into the marriage) • Infanticide was strictly forbidden

23. But men were permitted to have as many as four wives, as long as they were able to support them and treated them equally • Yet women had to be faithful to one man because land was passed through males and the identity of a boy’s father could not be questionable • And legally, a woman’s testimony in court was given only half the weight of a man’s testimony

24. And women were veiled in public – although this custom began in Mesopotamia and Persia, Islamic society adopted and adapted it • Over time, Islamic society became more structured and more patriarchal • A woman’s primary duty was singular: to be loyal and to care for her husband and family

25. Internal and External struggles • The Islamic empire regularly endured internal struggles and civil wars, often arising from differences between Sunni and Shia sects and from ethnic differences between diverse groups in a rapidly expanding Muslim world

26. Turkish slaves, or mamluks, revolted and established a new capital at Samarra in central Iraq, while other groups carved out pieces of the empire • A new Shia dynasty in northern Iran and constant threats from the Seljuk Turks, a nomadic Sunni group, also contributed to the empire’s falling apart

27. And like the Romans weakened by internal problems, the Abbasids had external foes: the Persians, Europeans, and Byzantines • But it would be their most distant enemy, the Mongols, who defeated them • The Mongols destroyed the city of Baghdad in 1258