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Chapter Goals

Chapter Goals. Describe the functions and layers of an operating system List the resources allocated by the operating system and describe the complexities of the application process Explain how an operating system manages processes and threads. Chapter Goals (continued).

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Chapter Goals

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  1. Chapter Goals • Describe the functions and layers of an operating system • List the resources allocated by the operating system and describe the complexities of the application process • Explain how an operating system manages processes and threads Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  2. Chapter Goals (continued) • Compare and contrast alternative CPU scheduling methods • Explain how the operating system manages memory Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  3. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  4. Operating System Overview • Most important component of system software • Primary purpose: Manage hardware resources and provide support services to users and application programs • Manages CPU, memory, processes, secondary storage (files), I/O devices, and users • Consists of kernel, service layer, and command layer Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  5. Operating System Management Functions • Loosely divided between: • Those oriented to hardware resources • Those oriented to users and their programs • Make OS more maintainable; functions within one layer can be modified without affecting other layers Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  6. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  7. User’s interface to OS Contains set of functions executed by application programs and command layer Manages resources; interacts directly with computer hardware Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  8. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  9. Resource Allocation • Single-tasking and multitasking • Goals and tasks • Real and virtual resources Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  10. Single-Tasking Resource Allocation • Involves only two executing programs • Application • OS (grants the application all unused hardware resources) • MS-DOS • Most common single-tasking OS • Widely used until early 1990s Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  11. Multitasking Resource Allocation • Norm for modern general-purpose computers • Allows flexibility of application and system software Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  12. Resource Allocation Goals • Meet resource needs of each program • Prevent programs from interfering with one another • Efficiently use hardware and other resources Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  13. Resource Allocation Tasks • Keep detailed records of available resources; know which resources can satisfy which requests • Schedule resources based on specific allocation policies • Update records to reflect resource commitment and release by programs and users Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  14. Real and Virtual Resources • Real resources • Physical devices and associated system software • Virtual resources • Resources that are apparent to a process or user • Meet or exceed real resources by • Rapidly shifting resources unused by one program to other programs that need them • Substituting one type of resource for another Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  15. Process Management • Process • Unit of executing software managed independently by OS • Can request and receive hardware resources and OS services • Can be stand-alone or part of a group that cooperates to achieve a common purpose • Can communicate with other processes executing on the same computer or on other computers Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  16. Process Control Data Structures • Process control block (PCB) • Created, updated, and deleted by OS • Used by OS to perform many functions (e.g., resource allocation, secure resource access, protecting active processes from interference with other active processes) • Normally organized into a larger data structure (called a linked list, process queue, or process list) Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  17. Process Control Data Structures • Processes can spawn other processes and communicate with them • Parent process • Child process • Sibling process • Process family Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  18. Threads • Portion of a process that can be scheduled and executed independently • Can execute concurrently on a single processor or simultaneously on multiple processors • Share all resources allocated to parent process • Advantage: Reduce OS overhead for resource allocation and process management • Thread control block (TCB) and run queues Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  19. CPU Allocation • OS makes rapid decisions about which threads receive CPU control and for how long that control is retained • Threads usually share CPUs (concurrent or interleaved execution) Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  20. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  21. Thread States • Ready • Waiting for access to the CPU • Running • Retains control of CPU until the thread or its parent process terminates normally or an interrupt occurs • Blocked • Waiting for some event to occur (completion of service request or correction of an error condition) Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  22. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  23. Interrupt Processing • CPU automatically suspends currently executing thread, pushes current register values onto the stack, and transfers control to OS master interrupt handler • Suspended thread remains on the stack until interrupt processing is completed (blocked state) • Once interrupt has been processed, OS can leave suspended thread in blocked state, move it to ready state, or return it to running state Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  24. Scheduling • Decision-making process used by OS to determine which ready thread moves to the running state • Typical methods • Preemptive scheduling • Priority-based scheduling • Real-time scheduling Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  25. Preemptive Scheduling • A thread can be removed involuntarily from the running state • Functions of the supervisor (portion of OS that receives control) • Calls appropriate interrupt handler • Transfers control to the scheduler Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  26. Preemptive Scheduling (continued) • Functions of the scheduler • Updates status of any process or thread affected by last interrupt • Decides which thread to dispatch to the CPU • Updates thread control information and the stack to reflect the scheduling decision • Dispatches selected thread Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  27. Processing steps on left occur after Thread 1 makes an I/O service call. Processing steps on right occur after I/O device completes I/O operation. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  28. Timer Interrupts • Generated at regular intervals by CPU to give scheduler an opportunity to suspend currently executing thread • Not a “real” interrupt; no interrupt handler to call; supervisor passes control to the scheduler • Important CPU hardware feature for multitasking OSs Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  29. Priority-Based Scheduling • Determines which ready thread should be dispatched to the CPU according to: • First come first served (FCFS) • Explicit priority • Shortest time remaining (STR) Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  30. Real-Time Scheduling • Guarantees minimum amount of CPU time to a thread if the thread makes an explicit real-time scheduling request when it is created • Guarantees a thread enough resources to complete its function within a specified time • Often used in transaction processing, data acquisition, and automated process control Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  31. Memory Allocation • OS allocates memory • When threads are created; responds to requests for additional memory during a thread’s lifetime • To itself and for other needs (buffers and caches) • Memory references are mapped to physical addresses through table lookups and address calculations Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  32. Single-Tasking Memory Allocation • Bulk of OS normally occupies lower memory addresses; application program is loaded immediately above it • Contiguous and noncontiguous (fragmented) memory allocation • Address resolution • Process of determining physical memory address that corresponds to memory reference Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  33. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  34. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  35. Multitasking Memory Allocation • The operating system: • Finds free memory regions in which to load new processes and threads • Reclaims memory when processes or threads terminate Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  36. Goals of Multitasking Memory Allocation • Allow as many active processes as possible • Respond quickly to changing memory demands of processes • Prevent unauthorized changes to a process’s memory region(s) • Implement memory allocation and addressing as efficiently as possible Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  37. Memory is divided into fixed-sized partitions; processes are allocated memory partitions to store instructions and data. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  38. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  39. OS maintains tables to track partition allocations and free space. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  40. Memory Fragmentation • As memory becomes more fragmented, larger processes have increasing difficulty finding enough contiguous partitions • To address the problem • Compaction (large overhead) • Noncontiguous memory allocation Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  41. Memory partition allocation and deallocation leads to an increasing number of small free partitions separated by allocated partitions. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  42. Contiguous memory allocation: A new process requiring4 MB of memory can’t be loaded unless memory is first compacted. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  43. Noncontiguous Memory Allocation • Portions of a process can be allocated to free partitions anywhere in memory • Uses small fixed-sized partitions • More flexible than contiguous memory allocation, but requires more complex partition tables and address calculations Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  44. Noncontiguous memory allocation: A new process requiring 4 MB of memory can be divided and loaded into the four free partitions. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  45. Virtual Memory Management • Allocates portions of processes (pages) to small memory partitions (page frames) • Swaps pages between memory and secondary storage as needed • Page hits, page faults, page tables • Page files and victims Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  46. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  47. Memory Protection • Prevents errors in one program from generating errors in another • Adds overhead to each write operation Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  48. Memory Management Hardware • Complex memory management procedures incur substantial overhead • Modern CPUs incorporate advanced memory allocation and address resolution functions in hardware (e.g., Intel Pentium) Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  49. Summary • Operating system overview • Resource allocation • Process management • CPU allocation • Memory allocation Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

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