Topic 1 The Emerging Issue of Transport and the Environment

1. Topic 1 � The Emerging Issue of Transport and the Environment A � Why Transport and the Urban Environment? B � Transport / Environment Links C � Environmental Issues of Urban Transportation

2. Why Transportation and the Urban Environment? 1. Context: An Urbanizing Society 2. Modes of Territorial Occupation 3. Economic Systems 4. Social Preferences

3. Context: An Urbanizing Society An urban world The world is getting increasingly urbanized. Since 1950, the world urban population has more than doubled. In 1999, half of the world�s population of 6 billions lived in urban areas. 75% were in developing economies. The majority of economic activities are taking place in cities. Cities are dominant attributes of the human landscape.

4. World Urban Population, 1950-96 with Projections to 2050 (in billions) Source: Worldwatch Institute.Source: Worldwatch Institute.

5. Stages of Urbanization Source: Adapted from Peters and Larkin, 1999.Source: Adapted from Peters and Larkin, 1999.

6. % of Urban Population, 1950-2030 Source: United Nations Population Program.Source: United Nations Population Program.

7. Urban Population, 1950-2030 (in millions) Source: United Nations Population Program.Source: United Nations Population Program.

8. Context: An Urbanizing Society Concentration An increasing share of the global population lives in megacities. Megacities (over one million). Supercities (over 4 million). Supergiants (over 10 million). 1950: 83 cities of more than 1 million. 34 cities in developing countries. 1995: 280 cities of more than 1 million. All new millionaire cities are in developing countries. 11 of the 15 largest cities are in developing countries.

9. Cities of more than 8 million, 1950-2000

10. Cities of more than 8 million inhabitants, 2000

11. The 15 Largest cities in the world, 1996, 2015 Source: United Nations.Source: United Nations.

12. Modes of Territorial Occupation How can we link society / economy to the territory? The way a society uses its resources. Highly related to the way it occupies its territory; its spatial imprint. Different societies have different modes of territorial occupation. Three major elements Mass production. Mass consumption. Mass distribution

13. Modes of Territorial Occupation Mass production Mass consumption requires mass production of food products on mechanized farms Use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. Capital intensive agriculture. Large exploitations. Qualified, flexible and organized workforce. Mass consumption Consumption of resources part of social ideals. The availability of food requires a powerful agricultural system. Mass distribution Highly mobile society consuming vast amounts of energy The car is the foremost expression of status and freedom.

14. Modes of Territorial Occupation Environmental impacts Modes of territorial occupation have environmental consequences Overuse of resources and generation of wastes. Consumption of space. Destruction of natural habitats and pollution. Mobility has impacts on the way cities are built and organized Space is cheap and roads are available. Cities are generally of low density and extended.

15. Economic Systems Impacts of globalization International division of labor and production. Specialization of economic regions and international trade. Increasing reliance on transportation. High mobility levels of production factors, notably capital. Space is economically less relevant for location. Comparative advantages are exploited in terms of the distribution capacity of networks and production costs. Economic production and markets can be much more spatially separated and allow greater economies of scale.

16. Economic Systems Management and operations Rely on the fast distribution of goods, people, and information over vast territories. �Just-in-time� and �door-to-door� strategies. Logistical distribution. Interdependencies created by new management alternatives within a space-time collapse of global proportion.

17. Fragmentation of the Industrial Production System

18. Distribution Strategies for Production Systems

19. Social Preferences The appeal of the car The individual car as the main mode of transportation. 81% of all cars are found in developed countries. New spatial environments where personal mobility is required to perform most activities like working, shopping and entertainment. Land use pattern and density is such a consequence to the social ecology of cities and regions. Decision making behavior behind the design and allocation of infrastructure in urban and inter-urban areas.

20. World Automobile Production and Fleet, 1970-1999 (in millions) Source: Worldwatch Institute.Source: Worldwatch Institute.

21. People per Automobile, 1950-1998 Source: Worldwatch Institute.Source: Worldwatch Institute.

22. Sport Utility Vehicle Sport Utility Vehicles, or SUVs, are a disturbing trend in terms of social preferences for private transportation and have accounted for about 50% of all car sales in the United States in recent years. Although marketed as vehicles to be used off road in rural areas, SUVs are mainly used in urban areas, notably suburbs. Their popularity is linked to the sense of comfort and security they provide for their drivers, even if a SUV is more likely to kill the passengers of another vehicle when involved in an accident. The major drawback is that SUVs are among the most energy inefficient vehicles around. This particular model, the Range Rover 4.6, consumes 1 gallon for every 12 miles traveled in urban areas and 1 gallon for every 15 miles traveled on the highway, making it one of the most energy inefficient road vehicle in the world. Paradoxically, Range Rovers are among the most popular SUVs on the market. SUVs can be perceived as the epiphany of waste and inefficiency, a perfect symbol of consumerism. Sport Utility Vehicles, or SUVs, are a disturbing trend in terms of social preferences for private transportation and have accounted for about 50% of all car sales in the United States in recent years. Although marketed as vehicles to be used off road in rural areas, SUVs are mainly used in urban areas, notably suburbs. Their popularity is linked to the sense of comfort and security they provide for their drivers, even if a SUV is more likely to kill the passengers of another vehicle when involved in an accident. The major drawback is that SUVs are among the most energy inefficient vehicles around. This particular model, the Range Rover 4.6, consumes 1 gallon for every 12 miles traveled in urban areas and 1 gallon for every 15 miles traveled on the highway, making it one of the most energy inefficient road vehicle in the world. Paradoxically, Range Rovers are among the most popular SUVs on the market. SUVs can be perceived as the epiphany of waste and inefficiency, a perfect symbol of consumerism.

23. Transport / Environment Links 1. Environmental Systems 2. Transport Systems and the Environment 3. Environmental Impacts of Transportation 4. Modal Impacts

24. The Environmental System Concept Set of interactions between the elements of the biosphere. Includes the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the ecosphere. Atmosphere Constituents: Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and traces (remaining 1%) of carbon dioxide, argon, water vapor and other components. Approximately 1,100 km high. Stratosphere (10 to 50 km) and the troposphere (less than 10 km) Main atmospheric interactors of the biosphere. Prime mean for the spatial diffusion of pollutants and a temporary mean of their accumulation.

25. The Environmental System Hydrosphere Accumulation of water in all its states (solid, liquid and gas). Elements dissolved it in (sodium, magnesium, calcium, chloride and sulfate). 97% of the water forms the oceans. 2% is ice (north and south poles). 1% in rivers, lakes, ground water and atmospheric vapor. Water covers around 71% of the earth's surface. Important accumulator of pollutants and a significant vector of diffusion.

26. The Environmental System The lithosphere Thin crust between the mantle and the atmosphere. Around 100 km thick. 1 km of it can be considered in interaction with the biosphere. Main constituents: Oxygen (47%), silicon (28%), aluminum (8%), iron (5%), calcium (4%), sodium (3%), potassium (3%) and magnesium (2%) in a crystalline state. Main source of pollutants and a permanent accumulator. Some are naturally released through sources like volcanic eruptions. Others like fossil fuels are the result of artificial extraction and combustion.

27. The Environmental System Ecosphere Set of all living organisms, including animals and vegetal. Temporary accumulators (like lead). Sources for pollutants (natural forest burning). Very complex set of relationships with the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

28. The Environmental System

29. The Environmental System Cycles How energy and elements flow from one constituent, like the atmosphere, to others where they are accumulated (permanently of temporarily) or passed on. Well-known cycles are the ones of carbon, nitrogen and water. Carbon cycle Transportation contributes to different geographical scales of the carbon cycle. Only one link in the environmental chain. Several aspects of the carbon cycle are ill-defined and difficult to evaluate. Growth of carbon dioxide emitted by transportation may imply for elements of the environmental system.

30. The Environmental System

31. Transport Systems and the Environment Relationships Concomitant contribution. Additional contribution. In some cases, it may be a dominant factor, while in others its role is marginal and difficult to establish. Geographical scales of relationship: Local (noise and CO emissions). National / regional problems (smog and acid rain) Global (global warming).

32. Transport Systems and the Environment

33. Transport Systems and the Environment The network Influences the spatial distribution of emissions. Centralized networks concentrate the traffic and emissions, but are using less energy. Dispersed networks may are more environmentally friendly, but are consuming much more energy. The traffic Induces the level of emissions since it is related to the utilization level of a transport system. The mode Impels the nature of emissions. Different transport modes have different energy requirements and levels of efficiency. A transport system related to the usage of cars has different environmental problems than one related to public transit.

34. Transport Systems and the Environment Economic / industrial processes sustaining this system Production of fuels, vehicles and construction materials, some of which are very energy intensive (e.g. aluminum). Disposal of vehicles, parts and infrastructure. They all have a life cycle timing their production, utilization and disposal. Consideration of cycles in the environment and in the product life alike. May lead to incorrect appraisal and policies.

35. Environmental Impacts of Transportation Source: EPA 230-R-96-009Source: EPA 230-R-96-009

36. Environmental Impacts of Transportation Atmosphere Large scale diffusion of pollutants. High growth on a short term basis of the concentration of pollutants because of local conditions (e.g. smog). Photochemical reactions caused by ultraviolet rays, notably over ozone, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Climatic changes (global warming). Acid rain. Synergetic effects when pollutants are combined (e.g. smog and greenhouse gases).

37. Environmental Impacts of Transportation Hydrosphere Diffusion of pollutants in a dissolved of colloidal state. Acidification and loss of neutralizing potential of ground and underground water. Drops of pH following snow melting (aquatic organism are particularly vulnerable). Growth in the solubility of several metals because of acidification. Additions of organic compounds, aluminum, manganese, calcium, magnesium and potassium by runoffs. Contamination of ground and underground water by nitrates.

38. Environmental Impacts of Transportation Lithosphere Acid depositions. Liberation of toxic metallic ions (aluminum, cadmium, etc.) through acidification. Loss of nutrients, notably calcium and magnesium. Inhibition of the miniralization of nitrogen. Modifications in the compositions and the depth of decomposition gradient. Inhibition of decomposition. Loss of the soil flora and fauna. Fixation by plants of heavy metals (e.g. lead) and contamination. Removal and consumption of land. Extraction of raw materials like mineral products and energy.

39. Environmental Impacts of Transportation Aquatic ecosphere Alteration of ecosystems in unforeseeable ways. Disappearance of vulnerable species and proliferation of tolerant ones. Reduction of bacterial treatment of organic matter by nitrification. Reduction of available nutrients to aquatic species. Reproductive impediments. Land ecosphere Damages over the vegetation modifying: hydric cycles. the level of underground water resources. soil erosion. air purification capacity of the ecosphere. food sources (agriculture). entertainment and tourism.

40. Environmental Impacts of Transportation Reduction of the vital space. Reduction of the genetic potential of species. Reduction of the food supply and alteration of the food chain. Consumption of resources. Human ecosphere Odors and noise. Cardiovascular and respiratory problems. Susceptibility to infection. Drops in life expectancy. Injuries, incapacity, hospitalization, death. Damage to structures: Loss of useful life. (amortization) Loss of property values. Corrosion of metal structures (bronze, steel, etc.). Destruction of historical and cultural monuments.

41. Modal Causes Modes concerned Road. Main support of passenger and freight movements. System-wide distribution. Rail. Impacts mainly around terminals and major lines. Maritime. Air. Transportation activities affecting the environment Infrastructure construction, maintenance, and abandonment. Vehicle and parts manufacture. Vehicle travel. Vehicle maintenance and support. Disposal of used vehicles and parts.

42. Transportation activities affecting the environment

43. Modal Causes Road Construction and Maintenance. Habitat disruption and land take for road and right-of-way. Emissions during construction and maintenance. Releases of deicing compounds. Highway runoff. Motor Vehicle and Parts Manufacture Toxic releases and other emissions. Road Vehicle Travel Tailpipe and evaporative emissions. Fugitive dust emissions from roads. Emissions of refrigerant agents from vehicle air conditioners. Noise. Hazardous materials incidents during transport. Roadkill.

44. Modal Causes Motor Vehicle Maintenance and Support Releases during terminal operations: tank truck cleaning, maintenance, repair, and refueling. Releases during passenger vehicle cleaning, maintenance, repair, and refueling. Leaking underground storage tanks containing fuel. Disposal of Motor Vehicles and Parts Scrappage of vehicles. Improper disposal of motor oil. Tire disposal. Lead-acid batteries disposal.

45. Modal Causes Railway Construction, Maintenance, and Abandonment Habitat disruption and land take. Emissions during construction and maintenance. Rail Car and Parts Manufacture Toxic releases. Rail Travel Exhaust emissions. Noise. Hazardous materials incidents during transport Rail Car Maintenance and Support Releases during terminal operations: car cleaning, maintenance, repair, and refueling. Emissions from utilities powering rail. Disposal of Rail Cars and Parts Rail car and parts disposal.

46. Modal Causes Airport Construction, Maintenance, or Expansion Habitat disruption and land take. Emissions during construction and maintenance. Releases of deicing compounds. Airport runoff. Aircraft and Parts Manufacture Toxic releases Aviation Travel High altitude emissions. Low altitude/ground level emissions. Noise impacts. Hazardous materials incidents during transport. Airport Operation Emissions from ground support equipment involved in aircraft loading, cleaning, maintenance, repair, and refuelling. Disposal of Aircraft and Parts Airplane and parts disposal

47. Modal Causes Construction and Maintenance of Navigation Improvements Direct deterioration of habitats and water quality from dredging or other navigation improvements. Habitat disruption and contamination from disposal of dredged material. Habitat disruption and land take for ports and marinas. Manufacture of Maritime Vessels and Parts Toxic releases. Maritime Vessel Travel Air pollutant emissions. Habitat disruption caused by wakes and anchors. Introduction of non-native species. Hazardous materials incidents during transport. Wildlife collisions. Overboard dumping of solid waste. Sewage dumping.

48. Modal Causes Maritime Vessel Maintenance and Support Releases of pollutants during terminal operations. Disposal of Maritime Vessels and Parts Scrappage of old vessels and dilapidated parts.