T-Cap review

1. T-Cap review By kayleeburks

2. Universe The Inner Planets • The inner planets, also known as the terrestrial planets, are small, dense, and made of rock. Their orbits are close to the Sun. • Mercury is a little larger than the Moon, but has no atmosphere. Its surface is extremely hot in the sunlight (but cold in the shade) and is heavily cratered. • Venus is about the size of the Earth. Venus has a thick atmosphere of carbon dioxide and sulfuric acid, and the surface is hot enough to melt lead. When Venus is closest to Earth, it is about 25 million miles away from Earth.

3. universe • The Outer Planets • The outer planets (also known as the gas giants) are extremely large, cold, and made of gas (hydrogen, helium). Their orbits are farther out and spaced widely apart. • Jupiter is the largest planet (over 1,000 times the size of Earth) with colorful cloud bands and a large storm (The Great Red Spot). • Saturn has three large sets of rings surrounding it, which are visible in small backyard telescopes. Both Jupiter and Saturn have many moons (also called satellites) and are like mini-solar systems. Some of these moons could support life. • Uranus has smaller thin rings, has 21 moons, and is tipped on its side. • Neptune has eight moons including one large moon, Triton. Triton has active cold, nitrogen geysers that erupt frequently. Dwarf Planet • Pluto was once considered the farthest planet. However, part of its orbit brings it closer to the Sun than Neptune, and it is about as small as the largest asteroid in the Solar System, Ceres. The status of Pluto was changed in 2006 to "dwarf planet", so it is no longer considered one of the major planets. Pluto is very cold and dim. It has a moon called Charon, which is almost as big as Pluto itself. • Ceres is another celestial body that is considered a dwarf planet. Before the "dwarf planet" category was established, it was classified as the largest known asteroid in the Solar System.

4. Galaxies • 1. Spiral Galaxy - these galaxies are relatively flat and have a bulge in the middle. These galaxies have arms that spiral out from the center. Our Milky Way galaxy is a spiral galaxy, and the Sun, our closest star, is one of the stars in it. Below is a picture of the spiral galaxy M81. • 2. Barred Spiral Galaxy - these galaxies are shaped like spiral galaxies, except for the fact that the arms begin spiraling out from a straight line of stars instead of from the center. Below is a picture of the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1672. • 3. Elliptical Galaxy - these galaxies look like a round or flattened ball and contain little gas and dust between the stars. These are often described as taking on the shape of a football. Below is a picture of the elliptical galaxy NGC 1132. • 4. Irregular Galaxy - these galaxies have no discernible shape or structure. Below is a picture of the irregular galaxy I Zwicky 18.

5. Universe • Comets have the most elliptical orbits of all the objects in the solar system. They move into the inner solar system for only a short amount of time. Once they have passed around the Sun, they move back out into the outer reaches of the solar system again, often well past Pluto, and are not seen again for many years. • Comets are smaller than planets, moons or asteriods. They are mostly made up of dust particles, frozen water and frozen gases. They are usually very hard to see, but as they approach the Sun these particles heat up and become much easier to see. It is the heating of these particles that causes a comet to have its distinct tail. Asteroids • The majority of the asteroids in our solar system can be found in the space between Mars and Jupiter. This area is called the asteroid belt. Asteroids vary greatly in size and shape and are mostly made up of stone, iron and nickel. • There are 4 main classifications of asteroids: • 1. Carbon (C-type) • 2. Silicate (S-type) • 3. Metallic (M-type) • 4. Dark (D-type)

6. Atmoshere • OCEAN CURRENTS—The uneven heating of the Earth's surface creates energy flow. Winds and ocean currents flow from warmer areas to colder areas, which means that they travel from the equator toward the poles. • # WIND: LAND BREEZES & SEA BREEZES—In coastal areas during the day, the land heats up more than the ocean. This uneven heating causes wind to blow from the ocean to the land during the day, as the warm air over the land rises, and the cooler ocean air moves in to take its place. These winds are called sea breezes.Inthe evening, the land cools faster than the ocean. This causes wind to blow from the land to the ocean, as the warmer ocean air rises and the air over the land moves out • •CLIMATE DIFFERENCES: COASTAL VS. INLAND—Oceans also have a major effect on climate. Water absorbs solar energy without changing temperature much. This means that ocean temperature remains within a small range throughout the year, even when the amount of solar energy received is changing. This explains why the climate in coastal areas changes less with the seasons than areas that are far away from the coast. Next to take its place. These winds are called land breezes. • SEASONS—The Earth's seasons occur because of the tilt of the Earth's axis. When either the Northern Hemisphere or the Southern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun, it is receiving the most solar radiation and is experiencing summer. When it is tilted away from the Sun, it is receiving the least amount of radiation and is experiencing winter.

7. Atmospheric convection currents • Atmospheric Convection • The Sun is the ultimate driving force for weather and climate patterns on Earth. Due to Earth's shape, position, and movement through space, the Sun heats Earth's atmosphere unevenly. Only half of Earth receives sunlight at one time. In addition, solar rays are more concentrated at the equator than at areas of higher latitude. Thus, some parts of the atmosphere become warmer than other parts. • When air heats up, it becomes less dense and rises. Colder, denser air sinks and moves in to take the place of the rising, warmer air. This constant circulation of air is driven by temperature differences, and is called convection. Wind • Warm air has a lower pressure than cool air. Warm air molecules are spread out; therefore, they do not place a lot of pressure on the area beneath. Cool air molecules gathered close together place greater pressure on the area beneath. • To maintain a balance, air masses flow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. It is during this process that wind is produced. • The uneven heating of the Earth is the cause of weather differences like low- and high-pressure zones, strong and light winds, temperature differences, stormy and fair weather, humid and dry conditions, and stable and unstable air conditions. Low pressure areas tend to have stormy weather and stronger winds. High pressure areas tend to have fair weather and light winds.

8. Scientific Investigations Identify a testable question • A testable question is one that can be answered by performing an investigation. Questions about opinions and emotions generally do not make good testable questions for experiments, although some information can be gathered about opinions by performing a survey. . Research the topic • Before an investigation can go any further, some basic research about the topic must be done. Research can include making observations about things in nature, asking an expert, or looking in books and on the Internet. form a hypothesis • A hypothesis is a possible answer to a scientific question and is based on gathered information. In science, a hypothesis must be testable. This means that it must be possible to carry out the investigation and to gather evidence that will either support or disprove the hypothesis.

9. Scientific Investigations Design an experiment to test the hypothesis • An experiment must be designed to test the hypothesis. All factors that can change in an experiment are called variables. The manipulated (independent) variable is the one factor that is changed by the person doing the experiment. The responding (dependent) variable is the result of changing the manipulated variable. A fair test is an experiment or comparison in which only one variable is changed or tested. Collect the data • A controlled experiment produces data. Data are things, such as facts and measurements, that are gathered by making observations during the experiment. • Observations involve the senses of sight, hearing, touch, and smell. Often, scientists use tools, like microscopes, that increase the power of their senses or make their observations more precise. • Data can be recorded by writing or drawing in a notebook. Data can also be recorded by using computers, cameras, videotapes, and other tools. Using tables to record data can help organize observations neatly.

10. Scientific Investigations . Interpret the Data • When an experiment is finished, the data from the experiment should be analyzed. Organizing data in tables, charts, and graphs makes it easier to see patterns and any relationship of one variable to another. Explain Results • After gathering and interpreting data, conclusions should be made about what happened when the manipulated variable was changed. Compare results to the hypothesis • The results of the experiment should be compared to the original hypothesis. Do the results support the hypothesis? Do they disprove the hypothesis? Hypotheses should not be thought of as right or wrong. Something is usually learned from the experiment, even if the results are not what was expected. . Communicate the findings • The results, analysis, and agreement (or disagreement) of the findings with the original hypothesis should be communicated to others. Communicating results helps people learn from one another.

11. Energy transfer • Energy is the ability to do work • Energy can take several different forms, including: •mechanical energy •electrical energy •heat energy •light energy •sound energy •chemical energy Mechanical Energy • Mechanical energy is the energy that an object has due to its motion or its position. It can be further classified as kinetic energy, or energy of motion, and potential energy, or stored energy of position. • Mechanical energy is present in: •a moving car •a book on a desk •a ball that is thrown

12. Energy transfer Electrical Energy • Electrical energy moves charged particles from one place to another. When a conductor—something that electrons can move through—makes a path from one end of a battery to the other or one side of an outlet to another, electrons begin flowing through it, creating electricity. The path along which they flow is a circuit. • These moving electrons flow through wires as a current, or a continuous flow of electrically charged particles. These currents can do work, converting their electrical energy to another type of energy (e.g., heat, light, sound, mechanical). • A wire is plugged in to a power outlet on a wall. The electrical energy that flows through the wire transfers into: • •light energy when it reaches a lamp. • •mechanical energy when it reaches a fan. • •sound energy when it reaches a radio. • •heat energy when it reaches a microwave.

13. Energy transfer • Heat energy can be created when matter undergoes a chemical change (burning wood or coal) or when it is produced by another form of energy. It can transfer from a warmer object to a colder object. • Examples of heat energy include: •when wood or other fuels are burned to produce heat •when electric energy is converted to heat in appliances ◦hair dryer ◦microwave Light Energy • Light energy is a type of wave energy, which is transferred and created by other types of energy. Light energy can also come from the Sun, which is referred to as solar energy. • Light energy can be transferred from (and to) other energy types, such as: •when electrical energy makes a lightbulb light up •when light energy is absorbed by plants and made into chemical energy (food)

14. Energy transfer Sound Energy • Sound energy is the energy of sound waves as they travel. • Sound energy can be created by other forms of energy, such as: •mechanical energy, when drums are played •electrical energy, when a radio is turned on Chemical Energy • Chemical energy is the energy found in chemical compounds, such as food or fuel. • Example 1: Jenna has connected a fan, a radio, and a lamp to an extension cord, which is plugged into the wall. The electrical energy flowing through the extension cord will transfer to which type of energy as it powers the appliances? A. mechanical energy B. sound energy C. light energy D. all of these • The electrical energy flowing through the extension cord with transfer to mechanical energy as it powers the fan, sound energy as it powers the radio, and light energy as it powers the lamp.

15. Kinetic & Potential Energy Kinetic Energy • Kinetic energy is defined as energy of motion. When an object is in motion, it has kinetic energy. • The amount of kinetic energy an object has is related to its mass and velocity. The greater the velocity and mass of an object, the more kinetic energy it has. Potential Energy • Potential energy is defined as stored energy. Energy is stored by doing work against a force. There are different types of potential energy. Elastic Potential Energy • Potential energy that results from stretching an object is called elastic potential energy. • For example, when a spring is stretched, work has been done to deform the spring, resulting in increased potential energy. When the spring is released, the potential energy will be converted to kinetic energy as the spring snaps back into its original shape.

16. Gravitational Potential Energy • Potential energy that is related to an object's height above the ground is known as gravitational potential energy. Generally, an object's gravitational potential energy is directly proportional to the object's mass, height, and the acceleration due to gravity. The water sitting behind the dam has gravitational potential energy. The potential energy converts to kinetic energy as it flows through the dam and gravity pulls it downward. If these two trees have the same mass, then the tree on the taller cliff has greater potential energy, because it is higher above the ground.

17. Conservation of Energy • The Law of Conservation of Energy states that the total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant. Energy can be converted from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed. • In physics, there are several conservation laws. "Conservation" means there is no net loss of whatever you are measuring - energy in this case. The input of energy in a physical system is the same as the energy output. EXAMPLE • A gas motor is an example of a system. The gasoline for the motor has a specific amount of potential energy (PE). When the gasoline is burned in the motor, some of that potential energy becomes heat or noise. • As the PE decreases, the kinetic energy (KE) increases. Energy is not lost, it has simply changed forms.

18. Electricity • Energy is the ability to do work. Electrical energy is the energy of charged, moving particles called electrons. Electrical energy can be used to move objects or to produce light, heat, sound, and also magnetic fields. Electrical energy, also referred to as electricity, is used to run many different machines and tools. For example, electricity is used to power: • computers • heaters • hair dryers • lights • refrigerators • stereos

19. Electricity CONDUCTORS & INSULATORS • Conductors are materials that allow electricity to easily flow through them. Insulators are materials that stop the flow of electricity. • The following materials are electrical conductors: •metals •water* *Although very pure water such as distilled water is an insulator, most water, such as lake water, rain water, or tap water, does conduct electricity. • Wire is made of metal, which is a conductor. • The following materials are electrical insulators: •wood •plastic •cloth •rubber • The coating on the outside of electrical cords is made of plastic or rubber, which are insulators.

20. Electricity CIRCUITS • A circuit is a closed path through which electricity flows. • Circuits that include a light bulb transform electrical energy into light and heat energy. • A circuit, such as the one shown above, must have an energy source, a load, and a means to carry the electricity through the circuit (usually wires). Each of these parts is discussed below:

21. Electricity • OPEN & CLOSED CIRCUITS • An electrical circuit must run in a complete loop. When there is no break in the loop, it is a closed circuit. When there is a break in the loop, it is an open circuit. Electricity will not flow in an open circuit. • Some examples of closed circuits are shown below:

22. Electricity • Open circuits are incomplete circuits. These are "broken" circuits in which there is no complete path for current flow. • Some examples of open circuits are shown below:

23. Electricity SERIES & PARALLEL CIRCUITS • There are two main types of circuits: series circuits and parallel circuits. • In a series circuit, such as the one shown below, all parts of the circuit are connected in a single loop. • A disadvantage of using series circuits is that a break anywhere in the path stops the flow of electricity in the entire circuit so any receivers connected to the circuit turn off. Some Christmas lights are made using series circuits. If one bulb burns out, all the lights on that string turn off. • In a parallel circuit, receivers are connected to different branches. An example of a parallel circuit is shown below.

24. Moon Phases • Half of the Moon is always lit by the Sun. But because the Moon is revolving around the Earth, the amount of that lit portion we can see from Earth constantly changes. • The changes in how much of the Moon's lit portion we can see from Earth are called the phases of the Moon. • The Sun shines on exactly one-half of the Moon, except during a lunar eclipse. From Earth, we can generally see only the part of the Moon that is lit by the Sun. As the Moon orbits the Earth (once about every 28 days), the amount of the lighted half of the Moon that we can see from Earth changes. These changes give us the phases of the Moon. The Moon makes one complete cycle every 29 1/2 days.

25. Moon Phases • Definitions: • New Moon - The phase that results when the Moon is on the same side of the Earth as the Sun. During New Moon, the entire lighted surface of the Moon is facing away from the Earth. Therefore, the Moon is invisible from the Earth. • Crescent Moon - A Crescent Moon looks less than half full, but not completely dark. • Quarter Moon - A quarter Moon is when half of the side of the Moon facing Earth is lighted and the other half is dark. There are two quarter moon phases in a cycle. • Gibbous Moon - A gibbous Moon looks more than half full, but not completely full. • Full Moon - The phase that results when the Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth as the Sun. During the Full Moon, the entire lighted surface of the Moon is facing the Earth. Therefore, the Moon appears brightest on Earth during this phase.

26. Solar and Lunar Eclipses • During a solar eclipse, light from the Sun is blocked out of view for a certain part of the Earth by the Moon. During a solar eclipse, the order of the Sun, Earth, and Moon looks like the following. • During a lunar eclipse, light from the Sun is kept from reaching the Moon because it is blocked by the Earth. During a lunar eclipse, the order of the Sun, Earth, and Moon looks like the following.

27. Earth Time • The way we tell time on Earth is based on the movement of the Earth and Moon in space. The three main units of time derived from these movements are the day, month, and year. • Day - The day is based on the rotation of the Earth. The Earth makes one complete rotation every day. It is the rotation of the Earth that causes changes from night to day. • Month - The month is based on the revolution of the Moon around the Earth. The separation of the days in our year into months is based on the amount of time it takes the moon to revolve around the Earth. It actually takes about 27.3 days for the Moon to make one revolution around the Earth. • Year - The year is based on the revolution of the Earth around the Sun. It takes about one year for the Earth to make one revolution around the Sun.

28. Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem • Producer - Producers are organisms that use the Sun's energy to make their own food. Green plants are producers. They make their own food using energy from the Sun in a process called photosynthesis. Other producers include algae and some kinds of bacteria and protists. Consumer - • Consumers are organisms that gain energy by eating producers and/or other consumers. Primary consumers are organisms that feed off of producers. Herbivores are primary consumers. For example, a deer that eats grass is a primary consumer. Secondary consumers are organisms that eat primary consumers. Carnivores are secondary consumers. A wolf that kills and eats a deer is a secondary consumer. Next come tertiary consumers, then quaternary consumers, and so forth until the top carnivore is reached. Decomposer - • Decomposers are organisms that consume dead plants and animals and release nutrients from those dead organisms into the soil, water, and atmosphere. The role that decomposers play in an ecosystem is crucial. Decomposers are important for the water, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen cycles. The nutrients that decomposers release into the soil are also used by producers to make food. Fungi, such as mushrooms, are examples of decomposers. Some kinds of bacteria are also decomposers.

29. Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem • The energy flow through an ecosystem can be shown in many ways: • A food chain describes the eating relationships and energy flow between species within an ecosystem. • The ultimate source of energy for all ecosystems is the Sun. Producers receive energy from the Sun and make food. Producers are the beginning of a food chain because all of the other organisms in the food chain depend on the food energy that is made by producers. The next organisms in the food chain are primary consumers, which eat producers. Next come secondary consumers, then tertiary consumers, and so forth until the top carnivore is reached. All organisms in the food chain are decomposed by decomposers.

30. Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem • A food web is a group of interconnected food chains. Organisms in a food web can belong to multiple trophic levels. • A food web shows multiple interrelated food chains. Organisms within a food web can belong to more than one trophic level, or feeding level. For example, in the food web below, krill are both primary and secondary consumers. Krill are primary consumers because they eat phytoplankton, which are producers. Krill are also secondary consumers because they eat carnivorous zooplankton, which are primary consumers. Organisms which use both plants and animals for food are called omnivores. • A trophic level describes the feeding level that an organism belongs to. Producer, decomposer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, and tertiary consumer are all trophic levels that can be used to describe an organism’s place in an ecosystem.

31. The Water Cycle • The water cycle (also known as the hydrologic cycle) is the journey water takes as it circulates from the land to the sky and back again. • The Sun's heat provides energy to evaporate water from the Earth's surface. Plants also lose water to the air in a process called transpiration. The water vapor eventually condenses, forming tiny droplets in clouds. • When the clouds meet cool air over land, precipitation is triggered, and water returns to the surface of the Earth. Some of the precipitation soaks into the ground. Some of the underground water is trapped between rock or clay layers; this water is known as groundwater. Most of the water that falls to the Earth's surface, however, flows downhill as runoff (above ground or underground), eventually returning to the oceans as slightly salty water.