FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E.

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Low population density Indo-Eur. peoples armed with composite bow and horse & chariot disrupt older civ’s: Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) High pop. density EARLY IRON AGE (c.1000-500 B.C.E) STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Low population density Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Larger chiefdoms & states w/surplus wealth Losers in wars are enslaved or taxed High pop. density Warfare more widespread & destructive. Turmoil & destr. of many cities in region Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared. Expense of bronze & horses Autocratic Civ’s ruled w/small elite chariot armies: Moderate population density (c.3000-1700 B.C.E.) EARLY IRON AGE (c.1000-500 B.C.E) HIGH BRONZE AGE (1700-1200 B.C.E) Moderate population density Big iron-equipped armies Cavalry replacing chariots BiggerEmpires (Assyrian Chaldaean Persians helped by: Warfare becomes more destructive, widespread, & chronic, but also profitable for winners EARLY CIV. WARFARE 3rd Dyn. of Ur (c.2100-2000 B.C.E.) Akkadian Emp. (c.2350-2250 B.C.E.) Cities’ ltd. resources Most Sumerian wars indecisive sieges until new siege tech’s Can storm cities History’s 1st emp’s: HIGH BRONZE AGE (1700-1200 B.C.E) Raiders & mercenaries use light infantry vs. chariots Weaken &/or overthrow civ’s in Near East Middle Kgd Egypt (FC.11A) Mesopotamia under Babylon (FC.10) Indus River Civil. (FC.12) Kassites & Hittites (FC.10) New Kgd Egypt (FC.11B) Mycenaean Greeks (FC.17) Iron tech. (FC.8) Iron tech. (FC.8) Alphabet Better records (FC.7)

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE a

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Low population density STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Low population density a

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Low population density STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Low population density a

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Moderate population density Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Low population density STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Low population density Moderate population density a

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Moderate population density Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared. Low population density STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Low population density Moderate population density a

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Moderate population density High pop. density Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared. Low population density STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Low population density High pop. density Moderate population density a

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Moderate population density High pop. density Larger chiefdoms & states w/surplus wealth Losers in wars are enslaved or taxed Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared. Low population density STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Low population density High pop. density Moderate population density a

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Moderate population density High pop. density Larger chiefdoms & states w/surplus wealth Losers in wars are enslaved or taxed Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared. Low population density STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Low population density High pop. density Moderate population density (c.3000-1700 B.C.E.) Cities’ ltd. resources Most Sumerian wars indecisive sieges until new siege tech’s Can storm cities History’s 1st emp’s: Akkadian Emp. (c.2350-2250 B.C.E.) 3rd Dyn. of Ur (c.2100-2000 B.C.E.) EARLY CIV. WARFARE a

The Sumerian Standard of Ur suggests Sumerian infantry (foot soldiers) were led by nobles in war chariots and fought in close order formations similar to Greek phalanxes. However, both assumptions are probably exaggerated since limited resources, city fortifications, and the lack of siege techniques to bring down walls made wars short and indecisive. Therefore, pitched battles were probably rare since smaller armies could retreat inside their walls and wait for the enemy, which lacked the resources for a sustained siege, to go away.

The Stele of the Vultures shows Eanatum of Lagash leading his soldiers in a tight, phalanx-like formation. However, it seems unlikely the peasant militia of the time had the time or resources for the training needed to maintain such formations.

An artist’s concept of Sumerian soldiers, showing from left to right, a member of the royal guard, a spearman, which formed the core of the army, and an archer.

Sumerian war chariots with four solid wheels were heavy and clumsy, leading historians to see them of little military value except as prestigious platforms for leaders. While tradition has them drawn by wild donkeys, known as onagers, such beasts were very hard to tame and control, making it more likely they were pulled by domesticated donkeys.

Another artist’s view of Ur. The surrounding walls of mud brick, combined with the canals, made the city virtually invulnerable to assault. Therefore,Sumerianwarfare probably consisted mainly of sieges. However, since the attacking soldiers were mostly peasant militia who had to return to their own fields, sieges were short and usually ended with nothing more decisive than the defending king agreeing to become the attackers’ vassal. Since crops did’ntdry out and become susceptible to burning until soon before harvest when peasant militia were needed at home, even burning crops was somewhat rare.

Sargon of Kish’s Akkadians used mobile hit and run tactics to wear down and eventually overwhelm the less mobile Sumerian armies and establish history’s first true empire.

Recent research indicates that the key to Sargon’s success in conquering his empire was some sort of crude siege technique such as a battering ram or undermining, which could bring down the unbaked mud-brick walls of Sumerian cities. Having taken a city, he typically would tear down its walls and install a governor and garrison (occupation army) to keep it under control. Later, city walls were improved with such things as oven baked bricks, thus making them virtually invulnerable to sieges until the Assyrians developed better rams and siege towers sometime around 800 B.C.E.

If enemy forces were to break into a city, it often had to deal with vicious house-to-house fighting in the city’s narrow streets. Such a battle typically neutralized any advantages an attacking army had in numbers or chariots.

A stele showing Sargon of Kish’s campaign against tribes in the Zagros Mountains to the north-east of Mesopotamia. Naramsin’s horned helmet indicates he was the first Mesopotamian ruler to proclaim his deification.

An artist’s impression of Naramsin’s sack of the holy city, Nippur, which triggered Sumerian revolts and helped lead to the fall of the Akkadian Empire

Sargon’s success in building the Akkadian empire together largely depended on his standing army of 5000 men, probably supported by taxes given by subject cities. By contrast, Sumerian armies consisted mainly of peasant militia who could only give limited service since they had to tend to their crops at home. Such armies could hardly compete against Sargon’s full-time professional troops who were reinforced by the peasant militia of Sargon’s subject states.

After the fall of the Akkadians, Sumerian power revived under the Third Dynasty of Ur, which used many Akkadian ruling techniques to hold its empire together. Massive expansion of the area’s irrigation systems, rather than being a sign of the dynasty’s prosperity, probably reflect a drier climate which put growing strains on the environment’s ability to support the population. These strains in turn probably weakened the Dynasty’s ability to contain nomadic raids.

An artist’s conception of how the Gutians who overthrew the Third Dynsty of Ur looked. A wall built across Mesopotamia failed to stop these nomads’ raids.

A fortified farmhouse (l.) and a watchtower, typical of local warning and defense systems in the Middle East throughout most of history. While not very useful against large scale invasions, such defenses could be effective against small scale nomadic raids, which were much more frequent problems.

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) Moderate population density High pop. density Larger chiefdoms & states w/surplus wealth Losers in wars are enslaved or taxed Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared. Low population density STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Low population density High pop. density Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) Moderate population density (c.3000-1700 B.C.E.) Cities’ ltd. resources Most Sumerian wars indecisive sieges until new siege tech’s Can storm cities History’s 1st emp’s: Akkadian Emp. (c.2350-2250 B.C.E.) 3rd Dyn. of Ur (c.2100-2000 B.C.E.) EARLY CIV. WARFARE a

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) Warfare more widespread & destructive. Turmoil & destr. of many cities in region Moderate population density High pop. density Larger chiefdoms & states w/surplus wealth Losers in wars are enslaved or taxed Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared. Low population density STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Low population density High pop. density Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) Moderate population density (c.3000-1700 B.C.E.) Cities’ ltd. resources Most Sumerian wars indecisive sieges until new siege tech’s Can storm cities History’s 1st emp’s: Akkadian Emp. (c.2350-2250 B.C.E.) 3rd Dyn. of Ur (c.2100-2000 B.C.E.) EARLY CIV. WARFARE a

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) Warfare more widespread & destructive. Turmoil & destr. of many cities in region Moderate population density High pop. density Larger chiefdoms & states w/surplus wealth Losers in wars are enslaved or taxed Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared. High pop. density Low population density EARLY CIV. WARFARE Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) Indo-Eur. peoples armed with composite bow and horse & chariot disrupt older civ’s: Moderate population density (c.3000-1700 B.C.E.) Cities’ ltd. resources Most Sumerian wars indecisive sieges until new siege tech’s Can storm cities History’s 1st emp’s: Akkadian Emp. (c.2350-2250 B.C.E.) 3rd Dyn. of Ur (c.2100-2000 B.C.E.) Low population density a Middle Kgd Egypt (FC.11A) Mesopotamia under Babylon (FC.10) Indus River Civil. (FC.12)

Babylon at the time of Hammurabi (c.1750 B.C.), with the Euphrates River flowing through it.

An artist’s conception of a typical soldier in Hammurabi’s Babylonian army (c.1750 B.C.E)

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) Warfare more widespread & destructive. Turmoil & destr. of many cities in region Moderate population density High pop. density Larger chiefdoms & states w/surplus wealth Losers in wars are enslaved or taxed Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared. High pop. density Low population density EARLY CIV. WARFARE Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) Indo-Eur. peoples armed with composite bow and horse & chariot disrupt older civ’s: Moderate population density (c.3000-1700 B.C.E.) Cities’ ltd. resources Most Sumerian wars indecisive sieges until new siege tech’s Can storm cities History’s 1st emp’s: Akkadian Emp. (c.2350-2250 B.C.E.) 3rd Dyn. of Ur (c.2100-2000 B.C.E.) Low population density a Middle Kgd Egypt (FC.11A) Mesopotamia under Babylon (FC.10) Indus River Civil. (FC.12)

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Cities’ ltd. resources Most Sumerian wars indecisive sieges until new siege tech’s Can storm cities History’s 1st emp’s: Low population density Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) Warfare more widespread & destructive. Turmoil & destr. of many cities in region Moderate population density High pop. density Larger chiefdoms & states w/surplus wealth Losers in wars are enslaved or taxed Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Low population density STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared. Akkadian Emp. (c.2350-2250 B.C.E.) 3rd Dyn. of Ur (c.2100-2000 B.C.E.) Expense of bronze & horses Autocratic Civ’s ruled w/small elite chariot armies: High pop. density Moderate population density EARLY CIV. WARFARE (c.3000-1700 B.C.E.) HIGH BRONZE AGE (1700-1200 B.C.E) Indo-Eur. peoples armed with composite bow and horse & chariot disrupt older civ’s: Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) HIGH BRONZE AGE (1700-1200 B.C.E) a Middle Kgd Egypt (FC.11A) Mesopotamia under Babylon (FC.10) Indus River Civil. (FC.12) Kassites & Hittites (FC.10) New Kgd Egypt (FC.11B) Mycenaean Greeks (FC.17)

A drawing of the fortifications defending the Hittite capital, Hattusas. In the center foreground, at the end of a tunnel leading into the city, is a postern gate for launching raids against besiegers or sending messengers to the outside world.

The King’s Gate at Hattusas

The Hittite army leaving its capital, Hattusas, for war.

Horse and chariot warfare came into its own with the inventions of the bit and spoked wheel on a rear-mounted axle for faster turns. On each side was a quiver with 30-40 arrows, suggesting the chariot’s primary use was as a mobile firing platform for soldiers armed with the composite bow. The horse and chariot’s expense inaugurated an age of highly stratified societies dominated by aristocratic warriors and kings who alone could afford to fight in this manner. Apparently, opposing chariots would battle with each other while masses of infantry stood by doing little else but watch.

*In 1285 B.C., Egyptian-Hittite competition for Palestine & Syria came to a head at Kadesh, one of the Bronze Age’s few major chariot battles. While the Hittites gained the advantage with a surprise attack, shown here, they threw it away by stopping to plunder the Egyptian camp, leading to an Egyptian counter-attack that turned the battle into a costly stalemate.

Part of Ramses II’s relief sculpture showing his version of the Battle of Kadesh against the Hittites

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Cities’ ltd. resources Most Sumerian wars indecisive sieges until new siege tech’s Can storm cities History’s 1st emp’s: Akkadian Emp. (c.2350-2250 B.C.E.) Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) Warfare more widespread & destructive. Turmoil & destr. of many cities in region Moderate population density High pop. density Larger chiefdoms & states w/surplus wealth Losers in wars are enslaved or taxed Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Low population density STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Low population density Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared. Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) 3rd Dyn. of Ur (c.2100-2000 B.C.E.) EARLY CIV. WARFARE High pop. density (c.3000-1700 B.C.E.) Moderate population density Expense of bronze & horses Autocratic Civ’s ruled w/small elite chariot armies: HIGH BRONZE AGE (1700-1200 B.C.E) HIGH BRONZE AGE (1700-1200 B.C.E) Indo-Eur. peoples armed with composite bow and horse & chariot disrupt older civ’s: Raiders & mercenaries use light infantry vs. chariots Weaken &/or overthrow civ’s in Near East a Middle Kgd Egypt (FC.11A) Mesopotamia under Babylon (FC.10) Indus River Civil. (FC.12) Kassites & Hittites (FC.10) New Kgd Egypt (FC.11B) Mycenaean Greeks (FC.17)

Essential to the success of chariot warfare were runners who trailed each chariot, rescuing their own wounded charioteers and finishing off those of the enemy. Later, these runners, many of them foreign mercenaries, came to realize the vulnerability of the charioteers. Therefore, when large numbers of such light infantry challenged the chariots on the battlefield, they were able to overthrow them and the aristocratic societies they ruled.

The chariot-led armies of some civilizations, such as the Hitttites and Mycenaeans, fell before the onslaught of these peoples with their light infantry. Egypt, while it withstood invasions of these so-called Sea Peoples, lost the rest of its empire and entered a long period of decline.

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Cities’ ltd. resources Most Sumerian wars indecisive sieges until new siege tech’s Can storm cities History’s 1st emp’s: Akkadian Emp. (c.2350-2250 B.C.E.) Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) Warfare more widespread & destructive. Turmoil & destr. of many cities in region Moderate population density High pop. density Larger chiefdoms & states w/surplus wealth Losers in wars are enslaved or taxed Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared. Low population density STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Low population density Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Drought (c.2000 B.C.E.) 3rd Dyn. of Ur (c.2100-2000 B.C.E.) High pop. density Expense of bronze & horses Autocratic Civ’s ruled w/small elite chariot armies: (c.3000-1700 B.C.E.) Moderate population density EARLY CIV. WARFARE Raiders & mercenaries use light infantry vs. chariots Weaken &/or overthrow civ’s in Near East HIGH BRONZE AGE (1700-1200 B.C.E) Indo-Eur. peoples armed with composite bow and horse & chariot disrupt older civ’s: HIGH BRONZE AGE (1700-1200 B.C.E) a Middle Kgd Egypt (FC.11A) Mesopotamia under Babylon (FC.10) Indus River Civil. (FC.12) Kassites & Hittites (FC.10) New Kgd Egypt (FC.11B) Mycenaean Greeks (FC.17) Iron tech. (FC.8) Iron tech. (FC.8)

FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E.