Napoleon’s Reign

1. Napoleon’s Reign

2. “The Revolution is over . . . I am the Revolution.” • What does the quote mean? What does it reveal about Napoleon?

3. Think About This Quote---After We Are Done I Will Ask You If You Agree---Why or Why Not? "I closed the gulf of anarchy and brought order out of chaos. I rewarded merit regardless of birth or wealth, wherever I found it. I abolished feudalism and restored equality to all regardless of religion and before the law. I fought the decrepit monarchies of the Old Regime because the alternative was the destruction of all this. I purified the Revolution.“ – Napoleon Bonaparte

4. Early Life • Born (1769) in Corsica to poor family • Character traits from the Enlightenment • Creative, scientific, non-traditional, liberal • The ideas of the philosophes influenced his government, religion, law, education, and economy reforms.

5. Discrimination Napoleon Faced In Military School Because He Was Corsican • Corsicans were thought of as lower people and Napoleon's Corsican decent could have hindered his advancements because of stereotypes such as they were dirty and poor islanders with no education or class. • Also Corsican society had very different ideals and values from those of Paris which people sometimes associated Napoleon with even though he moved to Paris when he was nine years old. • It was also easy for people to realize that Napoleon was an islander because of his accent. • He was so worried about being accepted by the people of Paris that he even changed the spelling of his from Buonaparte to Bonaparte to give it a French rather than Italian pronunciation. (Erickson 140) • This is why his marriage to Josephine later on would make it easier for him to rise politically.

6. Early Life • Napoleon was commissioned as a lieutenant in the French army. • He was not popular with his fellow officers. • He was able to inspire and motivate the troops under his command.

7. Early Life • Studied French philosophy • Analyzed famous military campaigns and strategy • Studied the use of artillery in the army. • The revolution provided Napoleon with the perfect opportunity to take advantage of his knowledge and talents.

8. Military Successes • Napoleon rose quickly through the ranks of the French army. • By age 26 he was the Commander of the French armies in Italy.

9. Military Successes Italian Campaigns The Treaty of Campo Formio: Took Austria out of the war and placed all of Italy and Switzerland under French control. It made Napoleon a national hero in France. In a series of lighting quick victories Napoleon crushed the Austrian armies in Italy. On his own initiative he concluded the Treaty of Campo Formio with Austria, against the wishes of the government in Paris.

10. Impact of Josephine • Josephine Bonaparte had an immense impact on her husband Napoleon, assisting him to his rise to one of the greatest political powers and military leaders that Europe has ever seen. • Josephine's social powers and great personality assisted and affected Napoleon. • The emotional ties that bonded them greatly impacted Napoleon from day to day. • It was also her opinions that influenced him, for he often listened to them and took them to heart. • Napoleon remained grateful til the day he died for her "devotion and self-sacrifice" (Laing 193) and regretted divorcing her for the rest of his life. • Josephine's good friend Claire Rémusat once said that "She (Josephine) acted as the original link between the French nobility and the Consular Government."(Laing 123). • She would listen to their needs and tell Napoleon what she thought should be done to satisfy them fairly (Laing 124). • When Josephine was Empress, Napoleon made it part of her job to enforce the newsocial code and it is said that he did this because many of the reforms sheherself had introduced (Erickson 240). • Napoleon had many great ideas and actions which Josephine often gave her input into and had an effect on the final result.

12. Character Traits of Napoleon Also Found In Dictators of 20th Century • Impressive intellectual ability • Could work 18 to 20 hours at a stretch without a break in concentration • He was “a typical man of the 18th century, a rationalist, a philosophe who placed trust in reason, in knowledge and in methodical effort” • He also had a love for action and boundless ambition. • He had charisma and could move men to obedience, to loyalty, and to heroic acts. • He was quite arrogant and manipulated people at will. • He said, “A man like me troubles little about the lives of a million men.” • From the Revolution, he learned that he must become a statesman and a tyrant to consolidate the Revolution and bind together the different social classes. • Machiavelli, the author of The Prince, would have thought Napoleon was the perfect prince---the whole concept of the end justifies the means. • Napoleon made it impossible for the Old Regime to be restored as it was.

13. Napoleon was the first modern political figure to use the philosophies of the Enlightenment combined with the idea of nationalism, and to back both with military power and force in the service of his own power and ambition. • The Consulate had democratic principles and voting rights, however, Napoleon soon seized power for himself and was named the First Consul.

14. “The truest conquests, the only ones that give rise to no regrets, are those gained over ignorance. The most honorable as well as the most useful activity of nations is to contribute to the advancement of human knowledge. The real strength of the French Republic should henceforth lie in its determination to possess every new idea, without a single exception.” — Napoleon Bonaparte (upon his election to the National Institute of France)

15. – Napoleon, quoted in Thorpe, Scott, How to Think Like Einstein, Barnes & Noble Books, Inc., 2000, p.167. "A man will fight harder for his interests than for his rights."

16. Social Class Reforms • Created a new Napoleonic nobility called the Legion of Honor. Positions were given out depending on job and ability. • There were: a)Napoleon’s Imperial Family b)Six Grand Officers of the Empire c)26 Marshal Generals of the Empire d)10 Princes, 31 Dukes, 388 Counts,1090 Barons, and 1500 Knights *All served in the government *He also welcomed back all the old aristocracy that had fled the country.

17. Social Class Reforms-The Bourgeoisie • Napoleon did much to help them to gain their political support • His legal code and economic reforms reaped major benefits for them • Bourgeoisie not treated differently from new aristocracy. • Benefitted from new … • Education system

18. Social Class Reforms-Peasants • Improved the legal status of the peasants • But in some areas, the nobles still had feudal privileges • Did improve their quality of life • Provided free elementary education • Offered scholarships for higher… • Education • Were not over-taxed anymore

19. Social Reforms---Women • The Napoleonic Code actually took away rights women had won during the French Revolution. • For example women were not allowed to independently trade in chattels or property, but had to ask their husbands before they did so. • He tightened divorce laws and fathers were empowered as rulers of their homes. They could ban children from inheritance and also imprison children for a month.

20. Social Reforms---Women • Interestingly, Olympe de Gouges' idea of the social contract between husband and wife was adopted in part. • The Code introduces the idea of Community. This was the joint pool of assets and liabilities in a marriage. • The Code explains what was to be included in the pool and what was excluded by law. • The wife's dowry was included but her "paraphernalia" was not. • Wife’s Paraphernalia: the use of logic and deduction from other sections, one can assume that it meant little more than her trinkets, married women could not make a donation during their lifetime without the assistance or special consent of the husband or being authorized by law.

21. Social Reforms---Women • The husband's adultery was still no ground for divorce unless he brought his mistress home. • However, the wife's adultery could land her in jail for up to 3 months and was certainly a ground for divorce. • In this regard the husband had the same power as over a minor. • Other grounds for divorce were introduced : • such as severe and grave injury, • either party being condemned to an infamous punishment • or mutual consent where the parties had been married at least two years but not more than twenty, where the wife was no more than 45 years of age but more than 21 and where the husband was at least 25. • For the last ground of divorce one also required the consent of parents and other descendants of the spouses. • However, this was a major amendment to the previous law and this together with the aspects of freedom of contract in relation to property brought to the marriage went some way down the road of the concept of a social contract between men and women.

22. Social Reforms: Overall Effects on Women • The Code led to an increase in women's rights but fell well short of the grand social ideals of liberty, equality, fraternity. • A woman's liberty could be removed by her husband for adultery where he could escape all legal censure; equality could never be achieved while she did not share full rights of citizenship and property. • As for fraternity - what a boys' club! • But let us not be unjust for these were different times and Napoléon put in place the beginnings of great social change. • The idea of the social contract which was introduced in the Code was to endure and expand with time.

23. Napoleon on Women • “In France women are considered too highly. They should not be regarded as equal to men. In reality, they are nothing more than machines for producing children.” • “Public education does not suit women, as they are not called upon to live in public…marriage is their whole estimation.” • “The husband must possess the absolute power and right to say to his wife: “Madam you shall not go to the theatre, you shall not receive such and such a person, for the children you bear shall be mine. Women should stick to knitting.”

24. Social Reforms: Jews • The Napoleonic influence accounted for the improved status and better treatment of Jews. • Although they were not treated the same everywhere, they had the right of worship (at least in private) and in some cases • became full-fledged citizens. • In some regions they preferred not to be assimilated, and to pay tribute rather than serve in the army.

27. Cultural Changes: Religious Reforms • July 1801-signed to Concordat with Pope Pius VII • This regulated relations between the Church and French government until 1905 • Did not restore confiscated church land • Bishops were nominated by the First Consul • The clergy was paid by the government • But Catholicism was declared the religion of the majority of the people • Stopped civil war in the Vendee religion by restoring relations with Rome

28. Concordat (Between Napoleon & Pope Pius VII in 1801) • France reverted back to “old” calendar. • Catholicism was the “preferred religion” of France. • Catholic Church could control primary education. • Church leaders had to take loyalty oaths to the government. • This was VERY popular in France.

29. Concordat of 1801 Napoleon wanted to heal the divisions within the Catholic Church that had developed after the confiscation of Church property and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. But, Napoleon’s clear intent was to use the clergy to prop up his regime.

30. Concordat of 1801 • Catholicism was declared the religion of the majority of Frenchmen. • Papal acceptance of church lands lost during the Revolution. • Bishops subservient to the regime. • Eventually, Pope Pius VII renounced the Concordat, and Napoleon had him brought to France and placed under house arrest.

31. Cultural ---Education Reforms • Education was high on Napoleon's list of priorities, which were in large part those of the middle class. • Napoleon believed in a system of merit, and for such a system to be effective there must be some form of widespread education, especially at the secondary level. • Problems with education system when Napoleon began to rule: • This fact was made abundantly clear by the results of a survey of all prefects in the nation conducted in March of 1801, under the direction of Minister for Home Affairs Chaptal. • Numerous complaints were heard regarding the lack of schools in many areas, lack of professionalism among teachers, lack of discipline and attendance by the students and, in a few areas, the lack of religious education. [14]

32. Education Reforms Dealing with Religion and Girls • Allowed some of the religious elementary schools to be reestablished. • These schools had provided most of the education available to girls, a fact that conveniently reflected Napoleon's attitudes toward female education. • Napoleon felt that education was important for girls, but did not generally expect them to have the same sort of education given to boys. • In his Note Sur L'Établissement D'Écouen,[15] Napoleon suggests that religion and assorted domestic skills necessary for the attraction of husbands should be stressed at this girls' school. • He at least does call for their learning numbers, writing, and the principles of their language, as well as history, geography, physics and botany. • Napoleon has been criticized for his attitude toward women and their education, but he was simply a reflection of the historical trend in France. • Indeed, women received the right to vote in France almost a quarter century after they did in America.

33. Cultural Changes: Education Reforms • Elementary schools were set up in each commune • A secondary school was set up in each department for boys at age 12 • Created a unified system of teaching under the control of the government to teach Napoleon’s principles • 1808-established the Imperial University • Teachers had to be certified by the University • Supported Sciences

34. Elementary Schools versus Secondary Schools • Under the new system, elementary schools (écoles populaires) were to be the responsibility of the local municipalities. • Napoleon had relatively little interest in this level of education, and was not firmly committed to the mass education that would result from a state-wide elementary education system. • As a result, the religious schools were to share a significant amount of the responsibility for elementary education. • Secondary education, however, was the base education for the future leaders of the nation, as well as members of the bureaucracy and the military; hence, Napoleon's greater interest.

35. Secondary Schools • The state had a strong interest in the curriculum being presented, and control would be easier if they established a system of secondary schools under the direction of a central authority. • Many of these secondary schools would be established by private initiative, including clerical, but all such schools were controlled by the state. • Covering students roughly from age 10-16, they would provide a level of education designed to provide students for higher levels of education. • Indeed, some bonus plans were established for teachers who had large number of students qualifying for advancement. [18]

36. Lycees • The heart of the new system was the establishment of thirty lycées, which provided educational opportunities beyond the secondary schools and replaced the écoles centrales. • Every appeal court district was to have a lycée, and they were to be completely supported, and controlled, by the state. • Scholarships were provided, with about one-third going to sons of the military and government, and the rest for the best pupils from the secondary schools. [19] • The lycées had a six year term of study, building on the work of the secondary schools. • The curriculum included languages, modern literature, science, and all other studies necessary for a "liberal" education.

37. Lycee System of Education • Established by Napoleon in 1801 as an educational reform. • Lycéesinitially enrolled the nation’s most talented students [they had to pay tuition, although there was some financial help available for poorer student]. • Lycées trained the nation’s future bureaucrats

38. Lycee Bonaparte

39. Structure of Lycee and Teachers • Each lycée was to have at least eight teachers, as well as three masters (a headmaster, an academic dean, and a bursar). • In a reflection of modern debate on the subject, the government provided a fixed salary for teachers, but also provided bonuses for successful teachers. • They were also provided a pension • Teachers were, incidentally, chosen by Napoleon from a list of recommendations provided by inspectors and the Institute. • The inspectors were given over-all responsibility for inspecting the schools on a regular basis.

40. Reforms Concerning Teachers • Napoleon had long been concerned about the teaching profession. • He recognized the central importance of teachers to the educational system. • He had at times suggested that the teaching profession should take on some of the characteristics of an order, or corporation, with very specific expectations, privileges, and rewards. • He had, for example, in a Note Sur Les Lycées [23] of February 14, 1805, suggested that beginning teachers might be forbidden from marriage. • On the other hand, by the end of his career a teacher should see himself in the highest ranks of state officials, having been placed under the protection of the Emperor himself.

41. Purposes of Education Reforms • It was intended, of course, to provide an educated elite that could help run the country and the military. • It was also designed to provide for an increased middle class; a middle class that would be successful and hence non-revolutionary. • There was a great emphasis on patriotism in the schools; an emphasis that was to increase during the years of the empire. • This is not surprising, of course, as even in modern America we are expected to teach a certain amount of patriotism in our classes.

42. Purposes of Education Reforms • As is the case with schools today, patriotism and loyalty to the state were a major part of the purpose of educational institutions. • We might be somewhat reluctant, however, to be as bold about it as was the law establishing the Imperial University: • All schools of the Imperial University will take as the basis of their instruction (i) the teaching of the Catholic religion, (ii) fidelity to the Emperor, to the imperial monarchy which is entrusted with the happiness of the people, and to the Napoleonic dynasty which ensures the unity of France and all the liberal ideas proclaimed in the constitution, (iii) obedience to the regulations of the teaching body, the object of which is to secure uniformity of instruction and to train for the State citizens who are attached to their religion, their prince, their country and their family. [24]

43. University Education • He established the Imperial University in 1808. The law creating this "university" stated, in part: • ...the Imperial University, a body charged exclusively with instruction and public education throughout the Empire. . . No school, no educational institution of any kind whatsoever, shall be permitted to be established outside the Imperial University, without the authorization of its chief. No one may open a school or teach publicly without being a member of the Imperial University and a graduate of one of its faculties. [21]

44. University Education • Perhaps the most important element in the development of the Imperial University was that for the first time the state took responsibility, and control, of the elementary education of its citizens. [22] • Teachers were placed under stricter controls, including dress, discipline, and salary • Next few images are of the buildings of the Imperial University, now the University of Paris, started by Napoleon.

47. Education Reform Effects • There has certainly been some turmoil in French education over the years, especially as regards the role of the Catholic Church. • During the Third Republic, the separation of church and state was made complete, and the teaching of religion was no longer part of the public school curriculum. • Thus, the curriculum of Napoleon was replaced by that of the Revolution. • The Imperial University has, of course, disappeared, but centralized control lives on in the Minister of Public Instruction. • The lycée continues and, indeed, plays an even more important role. • It is a virtually self-contained unit, and graduation from a lycée is adequate for many careers (unlike, say, the American high school.) • As in Napoleonic times, French education is much more stratified and elitist in nature than in the American system; success and progression are based on examination results rather than on the belief in universal education.

48. Cultural Reforms---Healthcare • He laid down the requirements for a person to be a pharmacist or a physician. • The government favored vaccination against smallpox, and it made a feeble attempt to increase the number of midwives so as to raise the percentage of live births. • Chaptal, as Minster of the Interior, started on a system of hospitals, each of which was to have schools for nurses, midwives, and obstetricians. • It was the first organized public enterprise of its kind in the world

49. Cultural Reforms • Alongside his aesthetic works Napoleon instituted certain features necessary for the modernization of Paris: • sidewalks, • house numbers, • two miles of new quais, • a water supply, • sewers, • a fire department, • new markets • and slaughter houses • replaced the eccentric street names of the Revolution. • In 1811 he wrote to his Minister of the Interior, Montalivet, that the four most important contributions he had made to Paris were to bring it water by building a canal from the Ourcq River, the new markets at Les Halles, the wine market, and the slaughter houses.

50. Cultural Reforms: The Theatre • Napoleon issued theater regulations which basically remained in effect a century after his downfall. • The decree drawn up in Moscow laid down the organization of the Theatre-Francaise and stipulated that the superintendent of Spectacles should appoint the committee which would decide whether the Theatre would perform a particular play. • Napoleon personally oversaw the productions of plays in the theaters of France. • If Napoleon disapproved of a playwright's work, his career was over.