Economic Ideologies in the Age of Revolutions (1750-1914)

1. EUROPE: AGES OF REVOLUTIONS 1750 - 1914

2. COMMERCIAL IDEOLOGIES IN 1750 • Industry and Commerce dominate the thinking of this age • Mercantilism • Limited amount of wealth in the world • If one nation benefited, another suffered • Goal is to maximize nation’s portion of trade • Goal is to exclude competition from markets and monopolize wealth • Governments pass legislation to support domestic commerce • Trade incentives for local producers • Establish economic, legal barriers to outside trade • Governments support colonization, imperialism • Colonization: find homes for excess population • Imperialism provides markets, resources for domestic industry • Foreign possessions bring glory, wealth to the nation • Almost every nation in the world subscribes to this theory • French, Colbert were major proponents of theory • Free Trade • Wealth is not finite but can be created • To maximize wealth, allow people, industry to compete freely • Governments exist to protect competition, not guarantee success • UK, US (American colonies), Dutch are free traders • Adam Smith and the Wealth of Nation • Intellectual father of capitalism, free trade • Ideas came to dominate US, Great Britain • By 1914 • UK was 1st in world, US was 3rd • English, American companies dominated world trade, finance, industry, capital • Even Germany, 2nd practiced the doctrine often

3. ECONOMIC EXCHANGES IN 1750 • Domestic Trade • Most commerce is internal • Most markets sought autarky: self-sufficiency • Greatest amount of GDP would be internal • Workers, farmers do not generate for export • International Trade • Conditions of Trade • Mercantilism predominates • International trade tends to be limited to cash crops, finished luxuries • Western Europe dominates most trade • Only Eastern Asia has the ability to rival, challenge Western Europe • Trade Markets • Western European exports and imports • Exports: finished products, finished luxuries • Imports: raw materials, minerals, primary crop luxuries • Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Northern Europe, SW Asia • Imports: finished products, finished luxuries • Exports: minerals, primary products, grains • Americas including Caribbean, South Asia • Imports: finished products, finished luxuries • Exports: minerals, primary products, cash crops • Eastern Asia • Exports: finished products, finished luxuries, cloths, silks • Imports: minerals (silver), luxuries, luxury food • Note: most economies limit European influence, contacts • Africa • Imports: finished products, finished luxuries, cash crops • Exports: slaves, ivory, gold, cloves • Triangular Trade between Americas, Europe, Africa

4. TRADE IN 1750

5. ECONOMIC EXCHANGES IN 1914 • Saw the rise of international trade • Trade involved all types of products, goods for first time • Entire world involved: all continents, peoples effected • Some nations traded to exist: made their wealth off of trade • Very few nations produced finished goods for international market (core) • Most nations supplied world markets with raw materials (periphery) • Nations had begun to specialize in trade (we cannot produce everything) • Terms of Trade • Most items traded were finished goods, industrial products • Wealthy nations tended to trade with each other • Western Colonies, Latin America, all of Asia except Japan • Only accounted for a small part of trade • Generally exported primary products, imported finished products • Nations began negotiating trade agreements • The US and later UK came to favor open markets (markets open to all) • Most favored nation status was goal: partners traded as equals • Rise of international capital markets • Domestic profit needed to be invested, sometimes best opportunities abroad • Money invested abroad to reap benefits at home • Rise of international banks, investment opportunities • Rise of Multinational Corporations • Corporations had branches, outlets in other nations • Facilitated the transfer of technology, ideas, people between continents • International Economic Exchanges • Linked the world better than most ideologies • Was an instrument of revolutionary change to traditional societies • Was a threat to traditional societies • Rise of international communism, socialism as reactions to international wealth

6. TRADE IN 1914

7. 2ND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION • In 1750 the world was largely subsistence agriculture • Rhythms of regional agricultural societies based on seasons, surroundings • Small plots, rural villages, no export: exception were Russia, Baltic • Began in England but also occurred in Western Europe, US, Asia • Outgrowth of Columbian Exchange • Outgrowth of the Scientific Revolution • Enclosure Act • Larger landowners begin to enclose lands • Began with enclosure of public lands • Done legally to increase yields of large landowners • Then took smaller farms, plots away from poor farmers • Done with support of Parliament • Results • Moved small, inefficient farms into better productivity • Brought new lands under cultivation • Freed labor for factories and swelled population in cities • The Revolution • New Foodstuffs planted; new styles of crop rotations • Selected breeds of cattle, dairy cattle, sheep • Technology, science applied to farming • Agricultural Revolution followed European imperialism • Europeans brought their crops, animals with them • Europeans began exploiting cash crops for commercial profit abroad

8. FROM PEASANTS TO FARMERS • The process, while social, began with technology, science • Agronomy and animal husbandry replaced herding • Selective breeding, splicing, experimentation • Crop varieties, fertilizers to enrich soil • Farming machinery introduced • Thrashers, reapers, seed drills, tractors • Muscle , animal power replaced by machines • Barbed wire was a revolution • Transport, preservation made export possible • Trains, ships with large holds • Grain silos, refrigerator ships, canning, food processors • Subsistence Agriculture becomes commercial farming • Western Europe, US, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay • Australia, New Zealand, parts of India, China, Japan • On the other hand, in some countries • Peasants went from masters of their own work • To hands for someone else’s work, or someone else’s work hands • Russia, Eastern Europe, Africa, parts of Latin America, SE Asia

9. COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE • Commercial agriculture was a revolution 1750 – 1914 • Cash crops: crops grown for profitable export • Often luxuries or non-necessities with high profit margins • Two bottlenecks (natural hindrance to profitable production) • Many are labor intensive: solution – slavery, paid agricultural workers • Many require extensive processing, preservation to be useful: solution – technology • Commercial agriculture is heavily damaging to the environment, soil • First arose during 16th century colonialism • Caribbean, Brazilian, SE Asian plantations • Latin American haciendas, rancheros • First export crops: sugar, hides, wool, spices • Expanded in 18th century • British North American colonies • Added tobacco, indigo, rice • Naval stores (trees, pitch, tar) • Asia added tea, coffee, opium, cloves • Americas added cocoa, coffee • Industrial Revolution made additional possible more • Cotton (seeds); rubber, oil (synthesizing) • Beef, mutton, grains, dairy (long-term preservation, get to market on time) • The rest of world, especially Africa enormously effected • Many areas of world taken from feeding people to exporting for profit

10. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION • The first revolution in an era of change, revolution • 1780s Breakthrough in productivity • Mechanization of factory, labor • Production of vast quantities of goods • Decreasing costs of goods • Preceded by other revolutions and changes in attitude • Scientific, Commercial Enlightenment, Agricultural • Change in mindset • New Ideas • Risk takers • Massive markets for products • Improved organizational skills • Upsurge in technology • Inventors apply science to life, work • Many new inventions • Capitalization and Finance • Profits from trade, colonies • Invested in Europe • Institutional changes • Limited government of a constitutional democracy • Notion that government should be minimally involved in economy

11. FOUNDATIONS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION • Coal critical to the early industrialization of Britain • Shift from wood to coal in 18TH century; deforestation caused wood shortages • Abundant, accessible coal reserves in Britain • Overseas colonies provided raw materials, capital • Plantations in the Americas provided sugar and cotton • Colonies also became markets for British manufactured goods • Grain, timber, and beef shipped from United States to Britain after 1830 • Profits from sugar funded banks, provided investment capital • Demand for cheap cotton spurred mechanization of cotton industry • John Kay invented the flying shuttle, 1733 • Samuel Crompton invented the spinning "mule," 1779 • Edmund Cartwright invented a water-driven power loom, 1785 • James Watt's steam engine, 1765 • Burned coal, which drove a piston, which turned a wheel • Widespread use by 1800 meant increased productivity, cheaper prices • Iron and steel also important industries, with continual refinement • Coke (purified coal) replaced charcoal as principal fuel • Bessemer converter (1856) made cheaper, stronger steel • Transportation improved with steam engines and improved steel • George Stephenson invented the first steam-powered locomotive, 1815 • Steamships began to replace sailing ships in the mid-nineteenth century • Railroads and steamships lowered transportation costs • Created dense transportation networks

12. IMAGES OF INVENTION

13. INDUSTRIAL CAUSE & EFFECT

14. FACTORY SYSTEM • The factory • Gradually replaced the putting-out system • Factory system required division of labor • Each worker performed a single task • Required a high degree of coordination • Work discipline, close supervision • Working conditions often harsh • Workers lost status • Not skilled • Just wage earners • Harsh work discipline • Fast pace of work • Frequent accidents • Industrial protest • Saboteurs • Flemish workers throw wooden shoes into machines • Shoes were called sabots hence saboteur • Luddites in England • Struck against mills and destroyed machines, 1811 and 1816 • Fourteen Luddites hung in 1813, and the movement died • Weaver rebellions in Germany against power looms

15. SPREAD OF INDUSTRIALIZATION • The First Industrial Revolution • Largely Atlantic based 1750 – 1850 • British industrial monopoly • 1750 to 1800 • Forbade immigration of skilled workers • Continental System of Napoleon • Abolished internal trade barriers in western Europe, sped up process • Dismantled guilds • Belgium, France • Moved toward industrialization by mid-nineteenth century • Belgium was first as it most resembled England, closest ports • Germany • Bismarck sponsored heavy industry, arms, shipping • Built railroads to move German army around, benefiting commerce • Rails required steel, coal • Eventually developed chemicals, electrical industries • The United States • Slow to start: few laborers, little capital • Cotton and Textiles began revolution • British craftsmen started cotton textile industry in New England, 1820s • Southern cotton was going to England, diverted to New England factories • New England most resembled Old England conditions • Civil War led to explosion of steel, iron, armaments, clothing, food production • Rail networks developed in 1860s • Integrated various regions of United States • Facilitated export markets, development of ports • Developed electrical, transportation industries

16. MAPPING THE REVOLUTION

17. INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM • Mass production • Provided cheaper goods for all classes of society • Eli Whitney • Mass production of interchangeable parts for firearms • Cotton Gin made cotton harvesting, production cheaper • Henry Ford • Introduced assembly line • Applied to automobile production • Industrialization • Expensive • Required large capital investment • Structural Changes of Industry • Large-scale corporations with investors • New laws protected investors from liability • Monopolies, trusts, and cartels • Competitive associations • Vertical organization (Monopoly) • One company controls all aspects of production within a single industry • One company dominates whole market • Oil: Drilling, processing, refining, by-products • Rockefeller's Standard Oil Co. (Exxon) • Horizontal organization (Trusts or cartel) • Owns all industries from manufacturing to marketing of a common product • Group of companies work together to control market, all aspects of products • IG Farben: world's largest chemical company • Most countries distrustful of monopolies although cartels tolerated

18. GENERALIZED EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION • Increased Population • Increased Urbanization • Increased migration, immigration • Increased wealth • Spread of wealth to middle class • New consumerism • New roles for women, poor, minorities • Change in child rearing, childhood • Rise of a technical, managerial class • Invention of leisure time, common culture • Increasing demand for social reform, worker rights • Increased life span, living standard; decreased death rate • Emancipation of slaves, serfs

19. WESTERN INDUSTRY & FAMILIES • New social classes created by industrialization • Captains of industry: a new aristocracy of wealth • Middle class: managers, accountants, new professionals • Working class: unskilled, poorly paid, vulnerable • Dramatic changes to the industrial family • Sharp distinction between work and family life • Worked long hours outside home • Family members led increasingly separate lives • Fathers and Sons • Gained increased stature, responsibility in industrial age • Middle- and upper-class men were sole providers • Valued self-improvement, discipline, and work ethic • Imposed these values on working-class men • Workers often resisted work discipline • Working-class culture: bars, sports, gambling, outlets away from work • Mothers and daughters • Opportunities narrowed by industrialization • Working women could not bring children to work in mines or factories • Middle-class women expected to care for home and children • Increased opportunities for women to work in domestic service • Children • Many children forced to work in industry to contribute to family support • 1840s, Parliament began to regulate child labor • 1881, primary education became mandatory in England

20. POPULATION GROWTH • The Fruits of Industry • Industrialization raised material standards of living • Mass production made luxuries into common goods • Workers received pay and able to buy goods, foods • Better diets and improved sanitation • Reduced death rate of adults and children • Reduced deaths due to childbirth • Increased life span • Decreased infant mortality • Declining birthrate in response to declining mortality • Voluntary birth control through contraception • Impact on Population • Populations of Europe, America, 1700 to 1900 • Asia populations rose due to food supplies • Increasing urbanization especially of • Port cities • Industrial cities • World Effects • Change typical of industrialized countries • In Non-Western Nations • During 19th century very little change • Change confined to port cities • Japan was the exception

21. DOMESTIC MIGRATION • Industrialization • Drew migrants from countryside to urban centers • By 1900, In Europe and Anglo-North America • 50 percent of population of industrialized nations lived in towns • More than 150 cities with over 100,000 people • Urban problems • Shoddy houses, fouled air, inadequate water • By late 19th century • Governments passed legislation to clean up cities • Passed building codes, built sewer systems • Internal Migration • Settlement of Frontiers by population centers • Existing populations expand into plains, prairies • Facilitated by railroads, technology • Examples • Westward Movement in USA, Canada, Australia • Settlement of Siberia by Russia • Great Trek by Afrikaaners • Chinese settlement of Yangtze, west, Manchuria • Settlement of Brazilian, Argentine interior plains

22. ENVIRONMENTAL DEGREDATION • First era in history when environment seriously threatened by humans • Causes of Environmental Stress • Industrialization • Pollution increased significantly especially in cities, water • Ability to destroy land for resources increased due to technology • Examples: Industrial areas of Western Europe, Eastern USA • Technology • Iincreased production on land, from resources • Marginal lands could be settled, exploited • Demographic Stress • Urbanization, expanding cities destroyed habitats • High Population Densities supported by food • Many acres moved to unproductive status • Examples: Western Europe, Asian/Indian port cities • Environmental Shift • Farming, ranching changed face of landscape • Ranch animals introduced new fauna, diseases, threats • Farming horticulture introduced new flora • Examples: Americas, Australia, New Zealand, Africa, Hawaii • Switch from subsistence agriculture to commercial agriculture changed face of environment • Forests were the most effected by this shift • Extinction, Endangerment of Flora, Fauna • Overfishing of areas began, overforesting of areas • Many died out due to competition from domestic flora, fauna • Many were exterminated due to hunting: Passenger Pigeon, Dodo • Examples: United States, Australia, New Zealand

23. DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION • Malthusian Economics • Predicted human population always outpaced food, supplies • Only natural disasters, wars, famine keep population low • Did not figure in technology, inventions, science • Key Characteristics • Population • Increased from 900 million (1800) to 1.6 billion (1900) • In Europe, Asia, North America • Scientific, medical advances • Increase life span, infant survival rate • Decrease death rate, death of mother during childbirth • New hygiene • Food supply increases • Lightly, uninhabited areas brought under cultivation • World trade allows for foods to reach areas quicker • Staples in world trade due to refrigeration, canning, ships • Agronomy, animal husbandry increase yields, variety, quality • Fruits of the Columbian Exchange • Many nations begin to export quantities of wheat, meat • Population Movements • Internal Migration to unsettled lands, international Migrations • Urbanization • End of Slave Trade necessitated labor based migration

24. GRAPHING MALTHUS & DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

25. LIMITS TO REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS • Testing the limits of revolutionary ideals: women's rights • Enlightenment call for equality not generally extended to women • Women used logic of Locke to argue for women's rights • Mary Astell attacked male dominance in the family • Mary Wollstonecraft: women possessed same natural rights as men • Women crucial to revolutionary activities • French revolution granted women rights of education, property, no vote • Olympe de Gouges's declaration of full citizenship for women too radical • Women made no significant gains in other revolutions • Gained ground in the nineteenth century in United States and Europe • Seneca Falls Declaration of Women’s Rights • Women involved in abolitionist, temperance, reform movements • Testing the limits of revolutionary ideals: slavery • Movements to end slave trade • Began in 1700s, gained momentum during revolutions • In 1807 British Parliament outlawed slave trade • US ended it in 1807; other states followed • Illegal slave trade to Brazil, in Africa, internal within US continued • Movements to abolish slavery: difficult because of property rights • In Haiti, much of South America, end of slavery came with independence • In Western society, campaign against slave trade became abolish slavery • Abolition • In Britain in 1833, France in 1848, the United States in 1865, Brazil in 1888 • Last areas to abolish slavery were Africa and Muslim world • Abolition brought legal freedom for slaves but not political equality

26. CHANGES IN WESTERN SOCIETY AFTER 1850 • Changes for workers • Better wages • Decrease of working hours • Rise of leisure time • Increased health, physical risks • Growth of white collar work force • Managerial • Entrepreneurial • Bureaucratic workers of government • Secretarial, office workers • Growth of blue collar work force • Industrial • Technical • Miners • Decrease in ratio of farmers to whole society • Technology increased productivity • Increased productivity lower prices, reduced need for farmers • Farmers began to migrate to cities, industry; immigrate abroad • Increased roles for women due to industrialization, education

27. WOMEN IN SOCIETY • Active in Revolutions, Change but limited results 1750-1914 • Women served as auxiliaries to men • Would not press changes • Women tended to lack mass support • From legislators • From other women • Female revolutionaries • Tended to put class interests above gender issues • Favored social reform, economic relief • Initially very influential in French Revolution • Women belief that their place was at home, with children • Restoration of Conservative elite often limited any gains by women • Post-Revolutionary Era Women’s Rights • Industrialization radically altered working women’s roles publicly and privately • Women moved into the work force in great numbers • Women began to earn some money, independence, began to organize • Women often still held responsible for home, children, family too • Political activism, issues resurrected by middle class, upper class women • Learned to publish and to organize; promoted education • Political activism tended towards • Opposition to state supported prostitution • Aide to unwed mothers, orphans, widows with children • Temperance Leagues were largely dominated by women • Women became very active in abolitionism, peace movements • Suffrage Movement • Women demanded right to vote; strongest in settler countries where women had major influence • Came slowly: 1 nation in 1900; 3 in 1910; 15 in 1920

28. CULT OF DOMESTICITY • Gender and Social Changes produced Industrial, Agriculture Revolutions • Decreased death rate from child birth • Women tend to have fewer children as more survive • Death of women in child birth falls • Raises live span of women over that of men • First time women began to live longer than men • 19TH Century Social Ideal • Women were expected to take care of family • Children, home were more important • Women expected to have children, look after the family • Public roles of women limited • Industrial Revolution changes, threatens ideal • Women acquire a public role • Women admitted to work force in great numbers • Acquired purchasing power, influence • Acquired increased independence from husbands • Extra income helped family, increased family health • Reality Was • Female workers not treated same as males • Women with families still had to take care of families • Child Rearing Changes • Prior to 19th century: 1/3 children die in first year – not much attachment until one year old • More interest in children as they survive; fewer children in family; more quality time • Relationship between children, parents now much closer • Tendency to introduce earlier childhood education, compulsory primary education

29. THE FIRST “WORLD” WARS • 1750 - 1765 • War of Austrian Succession and Rise of Prussia • France, Spain, England, Portugal, Dutch, Russia, Sweden in wars • Rise of Prussia as a great power, England as a super power • Showed balance of power doctrine at its fullest • Colonial Wars • Battles fought around the world • Colonies changed hands, colonials effected • English, French contest for North America • France lost influence in North America, Caribbean, India • England emerges as world’s super power • British navy rules seas unopposed • Acquires former French North American colonies • Acquires preeminent influence in India • Acquires right to supply slaves to Spanish Americas • Spain, Portugal, Dutch no longer great powers • American Revolution 1776 – 1783 and the Wider World Impact • British colonists revolt, inspired by Enlightenment • American ships ranged seas attacking English • Dutch, French, Spanish support colonial efforts • Dispatch aid, ships, troops to fight British in colonies, on seas • Spain invades English colonies to support colonists • Russians, Prussian, Swedes pledge an armed neutrality against UK • Treaty of Ghent ends war, gives Americans independence • Canada begins to rise as British loyalists immigrate to area • Great impact, influence on Latin Americans, European reformers • The Economic Impact • UK fought to protect its Caribbean Sugar islands as more important the 13 colonies • Forced British to develop Canada as an alternative to the 13 colonies • Led to bankruptcy of France and French Revolution

30. REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS • Revolution • A popular idea, means to an end • A way to restructure society • Popular sovereignty • Relocating sovereignty in the people • Traditional monarchs • Claimed a "divine right" to rule • Derived from God, unquestionable • Monarch unanswerable to people • Constitutional Limitations • Aristocracy, Enlightenment challenged king • Glorious Revolution of 1688 • Made the monarch responsible to the people • John Locke's theory of contractual government • Authority comes from the consent of the governed • Freedom and equality • Demands for freedom of worship • Freedom of expression, assembly • Demands for political and legal equality • Condemned legal, social privileges of aristocrats • Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract • Equality not extended to all • Women, Peasants, laborers, slaves, or people of color • Originally only extended to tax paying males with education • Ideals of Enlightenment were significant global influence

31. TYPES OF REVOLUTIONS • Aristocratic Revolution • Aristocracy fights to preserve privileges • Often against royal absolutism • Rarely for other classes rights • Usually ends with constitution, limits on monarchy • English Glorious Revolution (1688) is an example • Bourgeois (liberal) Revolution • Middle class seeks rights equal to nobility • Extension of franchise, ability to hold office • Issues of taxation often involved • Reforms limited and rarely radical, franchise limited • American (1776), French (1789) • French Revolutions 1830, 1848 • Mass revolutions • Most of society effected and involved • Often goals are quite radical • Methods to achieve are often quite violent • Nationalist Revolutions • Polish Revolutions of 1830, 1863 • Belgian Revolution (1830), Greek Revolution (1822) • Italian, German, Austrian, Hungarian Revolutions (1848) • Socialist Revolutions • Worker-Oriented or Peasant-Oriented • Parisian Communard (1870), Russian Revolution (1905)

32. REFORM • Often system allowed change without radical means, violence • Reform was a theme of 1750 – 1914 • Reform movements • Increased, responsive democratic representation, institutions • Expansion of male suffrage was the key issue • One of the hallmarks of a democratic society • Very successful in US, Western Europe, British settler colonies, Japan • Less so in Latin America, Russia, Eastern Europe, Africa, Asia • Abolition of slavery, serfdom • Abolition movement was very successful • Other forms of coercive labor replaced them • Racial, social equality did not follow • Women Rights • One goal was full female franchise • Not achieved until after 1914 but progress • Reform Movements • Spanish Bourbon Reforms (1780s) • Pombal’s Reforms Portugal (1780s) • Chartist Movement (1820s) • Great Reform Movement (1830s) • Progressive Movement, US (1890s)

33. FRENCH REVOLUTION & NAPOLEON • Summoning the Estates General • Financial crisis: half of government revenue went to national debt • King Louis XVI forced to summon Estates General to raise new taxes • Many representatives wanted sweeping political and social reform • First and Second Estates (nobles, clergy) tried to limit Third Estate (commoners) • National Assembly • Formed by representatives of Third Estate, 17 June 1789 • Demanded a written constitution and popular sovereignty • Angry mob seized the Bastille on 14 July, sparked insurrections in many cities • National Assembly wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen" • "Liberty, equality, and fraternity“: slogan and values of the National Assembly • The Assembly abolished the feudal system, altered the role of church • France became a constitutional monarchy, 1791 • The Convention and the Reign of Terror • Replaced National Assembly under new constitution, 1791 • Austrian and Prussian armies invaded France to restore ancien régime • Convention abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic • King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette executed, 1793 • Radical Jacobins dominated Convention in 1793-94 in "reign of terror" • Revolutionary changes: in religion, dress, calendar, women's rights • The Directory, 1795-1799 • A conservative reaction against the excesses of the Convention • Executed the Jacobin leader Robespierre, July 1794 • Napoleonic France was Enlightened Despotism • Brought stability: blended monarchy, autocracy, democracy • Made peace with the Roman Catholic church and pope • Reformed French economic, banking system: mercantilism • Extended freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews • Civil Code of 1804: political and legal equality for all adult men • Code Napoleon: becomes one of the world’s great legal traditions • Restricted individual freedom, especially speech and press

34. THE POLITICAL SPECTRUM

35. THE FRENCH & NAPOLEON • An Era of Global Conflict from 1792 to 1814 • French Revolution as Interaction • French revolutionary success sparked interest throughout Europe, Americas • Many revolutionary regimes set up by French armies in Italy, Germany • Haiti rebels during French Revolution • Spanish American colonies achieve independence • Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) • Brilliant military leader; upset the Balance of Power • Became general in royal army at 24 • Supported the revolution; defended the Directory • His invasion of Egypt was defeated by British army • Overthrew Directory; named himself consul for life • Napoleon's empire • 1804, proclaimed himself emperor • Dominated the European continent • Annexed lands in Italy, Netherlands, Germany, Spain; controlled other thrones • Defeated Austria and Prussia, Occupied Spain and Portugal, allied with Scandinavia • Perennial Enemy: Great Britain who controlled the high seas • Disastrous invasions of Spain, Russia in 1812 destroyed Grand Army • The fall of Napoleon • Forced by coalition of enemies to abdicate in 1814, exiled on Elba • Escaped, returned to France, raised army • Defeated by British in 1815 at Waterloo, exiled to St. Helena • Collapse of much of Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, French empires • Great Britain became literally the only surviving major colonial power

36. EUROPE 1812 & 1815

37. EMERGENCE OF IDEOLOGIES • Congress of Vienna was a Conservative restoration • Restored Balance of Power; ruled through great powers • Monarchy was at heart of conservatism • Conservatism • Called the Ancien Regime • Resisted change, opposed revolutions • Importance of continuity, tradition, aristocracy • Edmund Burke • Viewed society as organism that changed slowly over time • American Revolution: natural, logical outcome of history • French Revolution: violent and irresponsible • Liberalism • Welcomed controlled change as an agent of progress • Strongly middle class, support economic reform, education to help industrialization • Wanted to reform political structure, increase electorate slightly • Championed freedom, equality, democracy, written constitutions • Limits on state power, interference in individual freedoms • John Stuart Mill championed individual freedom and minority rights • Radicalism • Accepted liberal ideas but wanted universal voting rights • Many wanted outright democracy, social reforms in interests of lower classes • A few were socialists, attacked all private property, class status • Saw radical solutions (revolution) as only way to status quo • Represented by French Revolution, democracy, early nationalism • Nationalism often both radical and liberal but largely anti-conservative

38. NATIONALISM • Born in France (Joan of Arc), spread abroad during French Revolution • Idea began as radical, adopted by liberals, used by conservatives • An idea which could unify society across social classes • Many aspects similar to religion, faith • Loyalty to state often replaces loyalty to church, monarch • Dominated 19th century • Cultural nationalism • An expression of national identity • Emphasized common historical experience • Used folk culture, literature, music • Illustrated national spirit, distinctiveness • Political nationalism more intense in the nineteenth century • Demanded loyalty, solidarity from national group • Minorities sought independence as national community • European Examples • Belgian independence movement • German, Italian unification movements • Slavic, Greek, Rumanian nationalisms in Central Europe, Balkans • World-wide spread • Contact with Europeans introduced others to idea of nationalism • Nationalism often brought with it western ideas, structures • Strongest in Middle East, India, Japan • Zionism • Jewish nationalism as a response to European anti-Semitism • Movement founded by Theodor Herzl to create Jewish state in Palestine • Jewish state of Israel finally created in 1948

39. IMAGINED COMMUNITIES • Concert of Europe 1815 - 1860 • Congress of Vienna, 1814-15 • Conservative victory: restore old order after defeat of Napoleon • Maintained balance of power in Europe for a century • Failed in repressing nationalist and revolutionary ideas • Concert of European great powers called Holy Alliance • UK, Russia, Prussia, Austria, France working in “concert” • Attempted to prevent revolutions, change • Intervened militarily to oppose change • Often forced to limit, control changes • Nationalist rebellions • Against old order throughout nineteenth century • 1800s: Haiti, Latin America • 1820s • Greek Revolution: rebels overcame Ottoman rule in 1827 • Mehmet Ali in Egypt, defeated by French, English, Russians • 1830/1848 • Italy, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, Poland, Austria, Germany • Conservatism usually restored but revolutionary ideals persisted • Imagined Communities • Groups begin to form based on a perceived sense of community • Each group defined by agreed upon set of values, goals

40. THE SOCIALIST CHALLENGE • Socialism • Arose as an outgrowth of the Industrial Revolution • Accelerated by the horrible conditions of the workers in the cities • Utopian socialists • Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, and their followers • Established model communities based on principle of equality • Stressed cooperative control of industry, education for all children • Marxian Socialists (Communists) • Marx (1818-1883), Engels (1820-1895), leading socialists • Scorned the utopian socialists as unrealistic, unproductive • Critique of industrial capitalism • Unrestrained competition led to ruthless exploitation of working class • State, courts, police: all tools of the capitalist ruling class • The Communist Manifesto, 1848 • Claimed excesses of capitalism would lead to a communist revolution • Revolution would wipe away capitalism and establish a socialist society • “Dictatorship of the proletariat" would destroy capitalism • Socialism would follow; a fair, just, and egalitarian society • Ideas dominated European, international socialism throughout 19th century • Revisionism: Democratic Socialism and Reform Socialism • Combined aspects of socialism with democracy • Public ownership of means of production, regulation of industries • Limits to private property, accumulation of wealth • Power achieved democratically through elections, trade unions • Social reform came gradually, through legislative measures • Regulated hours and restricted work for women and children • Under Bismarck, Germany provided medical insurance and social security • Trade unions formed to represent interests of industrial workers • Faced stiff opposition from employers and governments • Forced employers to be more responsive to workers' needs; averted violence • Socialist parties began to compete in elections, seek expanded electorate

41. UNIFICATION OF ITALY, GERMANY • Italy • After Congress of Vienna • Italy divided into small states: all states except Sardinia, Papacy ruled by foreign dynasties • Austria was the preeminent power in Italy • Mazzini, Nationalist, formed Young Italy inspired uprisings against foreign rule • 1848 Nationalist revolution destroyed by Austrian troops • Sardinia and Cavour • Italian Sardinia only ethnic Italian state • Prime Minister of Sardinia becomes leader of nationalists • Expelled Austrian authorities in northern Italy, 1859 with French aide • Garibaldi • Revolutionary nationalist, democrat • Staged revolutions, later seized control of Southern Italy • 1860-1870: Italian states united under Sardinia • Germany • After Congress of Vienna Dominated by Austrian von Metternich • German Confederacy a collection of independent states dominated by Austria • Prussia the largest German state but limited in action by Austria • Metternich’s System: preserved conservatism, persecuted liberalism, hated nationalism • 1848 Revolution • Destroyed by Austria • Ended hope of liberalism, constitutionalism, national unification • Left Prussia humiliated, looking for revenge • Prussian and Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) • Created a united Germany through blood and iron • Used conservatism, militarism married with nationalism • Bismarck provoked three wars that swelled German pride • Defeated Austria, France to unify Germany under Prussia • 1871, Prussian king proclaimed emperor of the Second Reich

42. MAPS OF UNIFICATION

43. RUSSIA: EMPIRE UNDER PRESSURE • Post-1812 • Great concern with defense, liberal ideas as threat to old order • Government introduced reforms to improve bureaucracy • Made an alliance with the conservative powers of Europe to maintain order • December Uprising 1825 • Death of Alexander I prompted some western-oriented officers to rebel • Suppressed mercilessly by new tsar • Nicholas I • Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality • State became very repressive, secret police • Policeman of Europe: used army to suppress revolutions • Suppressed rebellion in Poland • Policy of foreign wars to divert domestic problems • Serfdom Issue • Russia needed work force in order to industrial • Serfdom not efficient • Lack of workers in cities an obstacle to economic development • Gap between western, eastern Europe economic systems • Emancipation of serfs by Alexander II begun in 1863 • Due to loss in Crimean War • Serfs gained right to own land, got most of the land from nobles • Nobles kept best and gave worst to serfs • Serfs had no political rights; had to pay a redemption tax on land: kept them in permanent debt • Emancipation did not increase agricultural production • Tsar was careful to preserve aristocratic order; serfs received no political rights • Political and legal reforms followed • 1864: creation of zemstvos • Local assemblies with representatives from all classes • Tended to only see local interests and not national concerns; legal reform more successful • A weak system: nobles dominated, tsar held veto power • Small middle class grew; improved corps of army officers; middle class politicians, bureaucrats • Literacy increased; readership spread; some women enter intellectual community

44. RUSSIAN EXPANSION • Nineteenth-century Russia • Collapse of Napoleon left Russia as great power • Russia dominates Eastern Europe (saved both Prussia, Austria) • Russia increased presence in Central Europe, Northern Europe • Russia wants to push into Ottoman SE Europe, SW Asia • Expands into Central Asia, Pacific • Autocracy, Orthodoxy, Conservatism • Official government policy to uphold conservatism • Pre-destined Russia to oppose revolution, change everywhere • Rise of Pan-Slavic Nationalism • Sought to control all Orthodox, Slavs • Brought Russia into conflict with Ottoman Empire, Austria in Balkans • Also wanted access to Mediterranean Sea • Hoped to seize control of Constantinople • War against the Ottoman Empire • Numerous wars to acquire Turkish lands in SE Europe, Caucasus • Supported rise of Christian Balkan states under Russian influence • Crimean War 1853 - 1856 • France, Great Britain, Sardinia supported Ottomans • Crushing defeat; forced tsars to modernize army, industry • Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 • Russian expansion into China, Korea met Japan • Japanese attack Russia without warning • Defeat two Russian fleets, armies • First defeat of a European by an Asian power • Japan emerges as a world military power

45. RUSSIAN EMPIRE

46. RUSSIAN REPRESSION & MARXISM • Cycles of protest and repression • Peasants • Often landless, no political power • Frustrated by lack of meaningful reform • Peasant uprisings become more common than serf as frustration heightened • Population increased as potato introduced, increasing pressures on society • Social Protest • Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity increased in 1870s • Middle Class, some aristocrats advocated rights, political representation • Radical Intelligentsia advocated socialism and anarchism, recruited in countryside • Repression by tsarist authorities: secret police, censorship • Russification: sparked ethnic nationalism, attacks on Jews tolerated • Terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition • Radicals wanted solution to social issue from a Russian perspective • Young intellectuals went directly to the peasants • Most opposed westernization, autocracy, capitalism • Many became peasant anarchists • Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by a bomb in 1881 • Nicholas II (1894-1917), more oppressive, conservative ruler • Marxism and the Reality of Russia • Marx foresaw a revolution by workers • Russia lacked lack worker base; society was largely peasant • Workers tended to be radical but misdirected • Russia lacked a middle class running society prior to revolution • The Bolsheviks (Russian Marxists) & Vladimir Ilyich Lenin • From middle class bureaucratic family, was an intellectual • Argued that proletariat was developing in advance of revolution • Felt Russia could have a revolution without a middle class phase • Organized an elite revolutionary party to lead workers, peasants • Organized the Bolsheviks • Party was secretive as Russian secret police everywhere • Infiltrated unions, workers organizations, peasant groups • Agitated against government, organized secret cells to lead revolution

47. MARXISM:Workerswill stage arevolution and overthrowcapitalism, stateLENINISM:Will only succeed withthe leadership of an elitegroup ofrevolutionaries

48. RUSSIAN INDUSTRIALIZATION • Russia experienced the 2nd Industrial Revolution • Financed by exportation of minerals, oil, gas, grains • Development of rail system spurred other industries, exports • Strongest development in coal, steel areas of Ukraine • Rise of industrial cities: St. Petersburg. Moscow, Poland, Ukraine • Promoted by tsarist government, French government • France needed Russia as a military ally against Germany • Russia needed a modern economy to compete on world stage • Formula: French loans/investment, sale of Russian grain • Sergei Witte, Minister of finance, 1892-1903 • Top-down Management Style • Supported railway construction • Military rationale: to move troops to border if attacked • But stimulated other industries including exports • Remodeled the state bank • Protected infant industries with tariffs, subsidies • Secured foreign loans especially from France • Industrial discontent intensified • Rapid growth of factories, urban working class • Industrialization fell hardest on working classes • Government reaction • Outlawed unions, strikes • Workers increasingly radical socialists, Marxists, Populists • Business class supported autocracy, not reform • By 1900 produced half the world's oil, significant iron, armaments

49. TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILROAD Cities, industry grew up along railroad; mines farms, opened in area

50. RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905 • Russian Revolution of 1905 • Military defeat, humiliation in Russo-Japanese War was cause • Russia always diverted domestic tension by short, successful wars • In 1870s, 1880s had expanded against Ottoman Empire • Massive protests followed news of defeat • Workers mounted general strikes in St. Petersburg, Moscow • Peasant insurrections in countryside against landlords • Police repressions ineffective, just upset people • Bloody Sunday massacre • Poor workers of St. Petersburg march to palace to ask tsar for help • Unarmed workers shot down by government troops • Peasants seized landlords' property, killed landlords • Workers formed soviets (worker councils) in cities, factories • Workers tended towards non-Marxist socialists; Marxists marginalized • Sought to achieve ends without full scale revolution • A Fizzled Revolution • Tsar forced to accept elected legislature, the Duma • Many parties elected with conflicting interests • Unable, unwilling to cooperate • Rendered ineffective by tsar, bureaucracy • Stolypin Reforms • Reforms allowed peasants to buy land; end redemptive payments • Small group of very successful peasant landowners began to arise • Rights for workers gradually ignored, cancelled • Army failed to support revolution • For the Future • Nicholas II was weak, ill-advised, unwilling to end autocracy • Russian Marxists emboldened, reorganized, radicalized • Peasants, workers radicalized, unlikely to cooperate in future