Ljubljana University, June 2019

2. Ljubljana University, June 2019 ‘Global’ English, and its implications for translation as one dimension of language policy Robert Phillipson Copenhagen Business School, Denmark Handelshøjskolen i København, Danmark

3. Ljubljana in history and now Saint Jerome (Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymous) the patron saint of translators, the first translator of the Bible into Latin, was born in 347 A.D. near Ljubljana. RP ‘English Language Officer’ for the British Council in Yugoslavia, 1969-1972. Passed the exams in translation from CroatoSerbian to English and in oral proficiency in Serbocroat. Some translation experience between, French, Danish, Swedish and English. Not a translation specialist.

4. Language professional identities and territories • Language policy needs to be situated within wider political, social and economic contexts. This also applies to translation and interpretation studies, as exemplified in Michael Cronin’s book Translation and globalization. • Cronin (page 3) writes than translation is ignored in ‘political science, sociology, and cultural studies’. • I reviewed the book for the journal Language Policy because translation tends to be ‘forgotten’ by experts in applied linguistics, language policy, and Anglo-American language pedagogy.

5. Neglect of translation in applied linguistics and language pedagogy Handbook of Language teaching Wiley-Blackwell (2009) • the Index – does not include interpretation or translation. Routledge Handbook of Multilingualism (2012) • the Index - nothing for interpretation or translation • But there is one chapter is on sign language and public service interpretation • the chapter on ‘Multilingual pedagogies’ (García & Flores) refers to the ‘grammar-translation method’ falling into disuse and being replaced by the behaviourist audiolingual method. This means that foreign language teaching was ignored. There are now was communicative approaches, cognitive approaches, Council of Europe benchmarking, etc.

6. Why this marginalisation of translation? • Nearly all Handbook ‘experts’ are based in BANA countries – Britain, Australasia, North America. • Few are involved in foreign language teaching. • Their expertise has been deeply influenced by Anglo-American efforts to establish ‘global’ English. • Supported by doctrinaire ‘second language acquisition’. • The prevailing pedagogy was monolingual and monocultural, and detached from translation and contrastive analysis. This facilitated ‘global’ careers for native speakers, the export of BANA expertise and UK/US textbooks worldwide that were supposedly ‘culturally neutral’. • mea culpa – British Council 1964-1973. • Zavod za Izobraževanje - in each of the six republics.

7. English imposition and promotion Monolingualism nationally in European countries (‘one country, one culture, one language’), a doctrine that was imposed in settler societies (USA, Canada, Australia...). Linguistic imperialism in colonising empires. First conference on English as a ‘world’ language, with Carnegie Foundation funding, held in New York in 1934. Institutional infrastructures were expanded on both sides of the Atlantic from the 1950s, and pedagogical tenets /fallacies articulated (Phillipson 1992, 137-172). Close collaboration between the USA and the UK to achieve global impact (Phillipson 1992, 2009). In 1964 I was commissioned into the ‘army of linguistic missionaries’ that a semi-official UK policy study elaborated a plan for in 1941 (Routh). The new service must ‘lay the foundations of a world-language and culture based on our own’.

8. Historical contextualising Language policy is integral to economic, military, political, social, and educational policies. The expansion of English is related to • processes of Europeanisation on several continents over six centuries, • turbulence in Europe for centuries, with reorganisations of polities and identities in 1919 and 1945, with strong US influence, • the ‘construction’ of the EU since 1958, which can be seen as a project, with processes, and products, • US empire, and seeing the EU as an empire externally, and internally as a German empire.

9. Plans for a European common market from the 1940s The EU can be seen as project, product, process • project – supranational integration or inter-statal partnership (federation or ‘Europe des patries’) • product – institutions, ECB, euro, budgets, staff, actions, acquis communautaire, an army? • process – surrender of sovereignty, policy formation in Commission, Parliament & Council of Ministers, market economics, elections, lobbies, research, ombud, etc. • language policies, translation and interpretation, are central to the entire operation of the EU and its interaction with states and civil society. The Bologna Process strengthens English. • English has become the default in-house language, but there is equality of 24 languages for certain functions both in speech (meetings) and in writing (Eurolaw).

10. EU, European integration:a Franco-German agenda, or …? The process of European integration might never have come about had it not been imposed on Europe by the Americans. Erik Holm, 2001. The European anarchy. Europe’s hard road into high politics. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School Press Pascaline Winand, 1993. Eisenhower, Kennedy, and the United States of Europe. New York: St Martin’s Press. 2007 EU-US summit endorsed the Transatlantic Economic Integration Plan, and the coordination of foreign policy globally, European Round Table of Industrialists, Transatlantic Business Dialogue, Transatlantic Economic Partnership

11. americanisation • military, economic, political americanisation • culture and imperialism (Edward Said) and the cultural cold war (Saunders 1999) • consumerist capitalism as a cultura nulliusof universal relevance, a necessity in the modern world, following on from terra nullius (Kayman 2004) • McDonaldisation in academia, the business world, the media, advertising, lifestyles, entertainment, clothing etc. (Hamelink 1994, Ritzer 2011) • neoliberal commodification principles permeate cultural norms & education (PISA, university ranking, privatisation, etc.)

12. GB Shaw .. Simone Weil .. Régis Debray • Debray, Régis 2017. Civilisation. Comment nous sommes devenus américains. Paris Gallimard. •  Debray, Régis 2019. Civilisation. How we all became American. London: Verso. • Homo œconomicus is a destitute Homo politicus, following on the destruction of Homo religiosus. • L’UE est une machine antipolitique, dont certains rêvent qu’elle devienne un acteur politique et attendant même qu’elle se constitue, un jour, en puissance, quand sa raison d’être est de fuir toute idée de puissance.

13. Global English? • Exploring expanding English as project, product, process • project – who has wanted more use of English? • product – by what means (in business, media, universities)? • process – what activities, beliefs? • Much of the Global English and World Englishes literature is triumphalist explicitly (David Crystal) or implicitly (David Graddol’s reports for the British Council). • That English is ‘global’ in any demographic sense is a myth. • English – panacea or pandemic? • preventive analysis and strategies the 5 Nordic countries, Germany, Slovakia, France (?) • litigation in Italy • EU-funded research, e.g. MIME

14. Global English? Lingua nullius? English as project, product, process • project – English should be used worldwide, the dominant language of regional bodies (EU, ASEAN, African Union), UN bodies, NATO (now active throughout Asia and Africa), scholarship, etc. • product – texts, publications, ‘international’ schools, English-medium schools, TESOL and IATEFL, ‘qualifications’ for teachers • process – ideologies, curriculum time, advertising etc. English is integral to and constitutes dominant forms of the media, the corporate world, entertainment, international relations, research publications, etc. Critical research, e.g. two Hydra books (Bunce, Rapatahana)

15. Addition or subtraction? • It is important in any given context to assess whether the expansion of English is adding to linguistic repertoires (linguistic capital accumulation) or reducing them (linguistic capital dispossession). • Territorial dispossession (terra nullius), and cultural and linguistic genocide and dispossession (cultura nullius) remain integral to the occupation by Europeans of the Americas and Australia. In virtually all former colonies (Singapore, India, the Philippines, Nigeria, South Africa, et al) English remains hegemonic, the language of elites, often subtractive. • Revitalisationof minoritised languages is a response to this. • In a continental European country, analysis is needed of whether English is supplementing or replacing a national language for key local purposes (English as a lingua nullius).

16. Lessons from history • the origins and significance of global Europeanisation and racism • transitional expansion from • territorial dispossession - terra nullius • to global americanisation - cultura nullius • with English marketed as universally relevant and needed, Englishisation, English as a lingua nullius • linguistic imperialism involves supply & demand forces and agents, push & pull factors • whether it is in placein any given context requires empirical investigation • cultural and linguistic dispossession happen.

17. ”Un sujet qui peut être qualifié d’explosif en Europe” Pierre Lequiller, Président, réunion ouverte à l’ensemble des membres français du Parlement Européen, le 11 juin 2003, pour debattre le Rapport sur la diversité linguistique au sein de l’Union européenne, préparé par Michel Herbillon, auprès de la Délégation pour l’Union Européenne.

18. No more emotional topic inthe EU than the language issue Es gibt in der EU kein emotionaleres Thema als Sprachen. Wilhelm Schönfelder, Head of Mission for Germany at the EU, cited in Süddeutsche Zeitung, 1 April 2005

19. Johan Wolfgang von Goethetexts in all languages enrich humanity Wer fremde Sprachen nicht kennt,weiß nichts von seiner eigenen. People who know no foreign languages know nothing of their own. Wer English kennt braucht nichts von andere Sprachen. Whoever knows English has no need of other languages.

20. Academic freedom and university autonomy are being subjected to severe constraints. Examples from Denmark and the UK. • Den Danske Akademis rapport ‘Forsknings- og udtryksfrihed på universiteterne’, februar 2007. • Jørn Lund: ’fra frihed under ansvar’ til ’frihed under kontrol’. • Magisterforenings klage til UNESCO, 22 maj 2008. • Stefan Collini. Speaking of universities, Verso. • Stress and depression among academics in the UK.

21. Handelshøjsksolen i KøbenhavnCopenhagen Business School FROM (after establishment in 1917, by 2000 ….) A languages faculty: several language and culture departments, with research competence and specialisations in translation, language technology, terminology, American Studies, European Studies, language policy, language pedagogy, and ad hoc training courses for interpreters. TO (progressively until 2018) The abolition of Russian and Italian Abolition of French, German, Spanish and Japanese Out with disciplines (translation) and cultural studies Certification for qualifications as translators abolished (nationally) English is now an instrument, in most teaching and research, implemented as a covert language policy, decontextualised.

22. Universities as a public good The first duty of a university is to teach wisdom, not to train, and to confirm character and not impart technicalities. We want a lot of engineers in the modern world, but we do not want a world of engineers. We want some scientists, but we must make sure that science is our servant and not our master… No amount of technical knowledge can replace the comprehension of the humanities or the study of history and philosophy.

23. Churchill in Copenhagen 1950 The advantages of the nineteenth century, the literary age, have been largely put aside by this terrible twentieth century with all its confusion, exhaustion, and bewilderment of mankind. This is a time when a firm grip on all the essential verities and values of humanity and civilization should be the central care of the universities of Europe and the world.

24. USA exceptionalismpast and present From George Washington 1783 & 1796 (the USA as ‘a rising empire’), to the Washington Consensus (neoliberalism) ‘The whole world should adopt the American system. The American system can survive in America only if it becomes a world system’ President Harry Truman 1947 President Barack Obama 2014 ‘Here’s my bottom line: America must always lead on the world stage.’

25. Winston Churchill’sunderstanding of globalization, 1943 The power to control language offers far better prizes than taking away people’s provinces or lands or grinding them down in exploitation. The empires of the future are the empires of the mind.

26. Winston Churchill at Harvard, 1943 This gift of a common tongue is a priceless inheritance, and it may well some day become the foundation of a common citizenship. I like to think of British and Americans moving about freely over each other's wide estates with hardly a sense of being foreigners to one another. But I do not see why we should not try to spread our common language even more widely throughout the globe and, without seeking selfish advantage over any, possess ourselves of this invaluable amenity and birthright.

27. Churchill’s five themes • UK/US unity • military collaboration • plans for global peace-keeping • ensuring US/UK global dominance • global English – and global English teaching • The use of English as a world language, 1934 • investment in 1930s and 1950s • massive expansion • global professional service industry

28. British Council strategy Martin Davidson, its Chief Executive, asserts in the Annual Report 2009-10: “English next India tells us that from education to the economy, from employability to social mobility, the prospects for India and its people will be greatly enhanced by bringing English into every classroom, every office and every home.”

29. European discourses:rule of law or abuse of power? The Union shall respect cultural, religious and linguistic diversity. Artícle 22, The Charter of Fondamental Rights of the European Union … in the field of linguistic rights, like in other fields of human rights, there is no right but only … politics. Yves Marek, counsellor to Jacques Toubon, Minister of Culture and Francophonie, and later of Justice, France, 1996

30. https://www.grantfinder.co.uk/archive/international-education-strategy-aims-to-boost-number-of-overseas-students-in-uk/https://www.grantfinder.co.uk/archive/international-education-strategy-aims-to-boost-number-of-overseas-students-in-uk/ UK Department of Education, and Department of International Trade, March 18, 2019 • Increase the value of educational exports from £20 billion to £35 billion p.a. by 2030 • Increase the number of international students studying in the UK from 460,000 to 600,000 by 2030 • Consolidation in China, Hong Kong, India and Middle East • Expansion in Asia, Africa, and Latin America Exports?

31. Alternatives to English linguistic imperialism A Cambridge research project identified on Google Scholar 75,513 scientific manuscripts on biodiversity conservation. • English 48,600 (64.4%) • Spanish 9,520 • Portuguese 7,800 • simplified Chinese 4,540 • French 2,290 Amano, Tatsuya, Juan P. GonzaÂlez-Varo, and William J. Sutherland (2016). Languages Are Still a Major Barrier to Global Science. PLoS Biol 14(12): e2000933. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2000933. Add German, Japanese, Russian, Nordic languages, … What about indigenous knowledge and cosmology transmission?

32. Professional tenets/fallacies in TESOL and ELT • the monolingual fallacy • the native speaker fallacy • the early start fallacy • the maximum exposure fallacy • the subtractive fallacy. Central to the global US-UK ELT and TESOL business, World Bank activities, etc. Phillipson, Linguisticimperialism, chapter 7, (Oxford UP, 1992, Shanghai and Delhi, translatedintoArabic and Japanese)

33. ‘Global’ English myths • British English is necessary for development. SeeThe development dictionary, Wolfgang Sachs. • Anglo-American textbooks are universally appropriate. See analyses by John Gray. • English is the only language needed in international affairs. Dozens of languages function internationally. • English language tests are objective and valid worldwide. See Buck, and Kahn on TOEFL. • The internationalisation of TESOL and ELT is apolitical. SeeLinguistic imperialism, Linguistic imperialism continued. Professionalism and myths in TESOL, RP at TESOL Convention 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KPwUVhE0XKE

34. Worrying developments in language education Foreign language learning in Denmark, UK, USA, et al …. being eliminated under cultura nullius and lingua nullius pressures. Implications • catastrophes happen in education • facilitated by the erosion of university autonomy, and of the principle of universities as a public good, of Churchillian, Humboltian values • implemented by poor political and executive leadership • xenophobia has become mainstream, restricting diversity and inclusion • resistance is needed.

35. Language policy in the Nordic countries • National studies over past 15 years: English as threat? • Commissioned scholarly reviews via five national language boards. • 2006, Deklaration om Nordisk Språkpolitik, declares plans for the continued vitality of national languages, and for explicit language policy and planning, and language rights. • Limited implementation. • Report in 2017 on Parallel language competence in the Nordic countries More parallel, please! Sprogbrug i internationaliseringsprocesser Final Report of the Nordic Parallel language Group with 11 recommendations for universities on ideal arrangements for the use of international and local languages.

36. Recommendations for Nordic universities (1) 1. All universities should have a language policyintegrated with its internationalization policy and that relates to national language policy parameters and the role of the university locally. 2. All universities should have a language policy committeethat follows developments continually. 3. A language centreshould, on the basis of research criteria, elaborate courses in the local language of relevance for ‘international’ staff and students, and should ensure the quality of such courses; it should also offer translation and language revision services; it should develop digital resources.

37. Recommendations (2) 4. International teaching and research staff should be instructed in forms of parallel academic language use, and features of local students’ dialogue; they should also be familiarised with the local language of university administration; and progressively acquire competence to function fully in the local language; this should be stipulated in their employment contract. 5. There should be needs analysisin relation to study disciplines and future employment for guest students and for foreign students doing an entire degree; localstudents should be instructed in the discourse of their academic field in their language and in English, and ideally in additional languages. 6. Elaboration of a specialised needs analysisso as to achieve full parallel competence.

38. Recommendations (3) 7. Criteria for choice of the language(s) of instruction, for lecturers’ language proficiency, reading material, and specification of achievement in each language are needed.  8. Principles for the language of university administration.  9. Strategies for languages of publication.  10. Policies for research disseminationand popularisation nationally and internationally.  11. Elaboration of relevant digital toolsfor staff and students.

39. Implications for language policy • ‘International’ staff must become bilingual, just as well-qualified foreign language teachers are. • At all levels of education, translation, between a diversity of languages, needs strengthening. • Translation should be integral to communicative language learning, within the diversity of English-using cultures, and critical pedagogy. • Linguistic capital accumulation or dispossession needs constant monitoring. • There needs to be awareness of the fact that however useful English currently is, accepting English as a lingua nullius is harmful for other languages.

40. The future? Chinese?

42. Zwei-/Mehrsprachige Universitäten lassen sich durch folgende Kriterien definieren, Michael Langner • 2+ languages as medium of instruction • 25+% bilingual degrees at the institution • Choice of language for the dissertation • Encouragement to write in L2 • Ongoing quality evaluation • An explicit language policy • Self-instructional language learning centre • Languages integral to corporate identity • Research into multilingualism • Official documents in 2+ languages • Majority of website texts in the relevant languages • Everyday interaction of students and staff in 2+ languages. Right to the bi-/multilingual university label requires 7+ criteria

43. A taxonomy of variables impacting on multilingual higher education and research • Status dimensions (status and prestige planning) • Macro level: international, national, and institutional multilingual context and constraints; hierarchies in global and the local language ecologies; economics and processes of linguistic capital accumulation or dispossession; extent of language maintenance in central domains; degree of respect for linguistic human rights. • Micro level: language use in core university activities, spoken and written, and on websites; awareness of language rights, language duties and linguistic diversity.

44. Policy decisions (discourse planning) on • explicit and implicit, overt and covert, language policiesfor • an institution, including internal and external communications • a department, and for all degrees at BA, MA and PhD levels • medium/media of instructionin learning and examining contexts • institutional and personal multilingual identity, perceptionsof multilingualism • criteria for assessing qualityof teaching, of research, and for promotion • languages of publication; language policy in bibliometric quantification • certificationof language competence of staff and/or students • responsibility for implementing and monitoring language policy decisions

45. Processes for creating and maintaining communities of practice (acquisition planning) • Functional goals for academic language competence development, staff & students • Learning processesrelative to proficiency development for differentiated activities: in reception (listening, reading) and in production (speaking, writing); IT integration; role of translation and contrastive language study • Teacher and student rolesin knowledge assimilation and creation at all levels • Development of metalinguistic, metacommunicative and intercultural awareness • Knowledge sharing within an institution and externally: • International scholarly articles and books • Local mass media popularization, textbooks and reference works

46. Form in Language 1/Language 2/Language 3/… (corpus and usage planning) as determined in • Codification in authoritative reference works and materials • Conventional linguistic form in genres and discoursesfor academic purposes • Terminology and usage creation when needed • Technology (technology planning) • Language learning centre • Internet-based teaching and learning support, online materials, etc • Development of language technology software.

47. British Council expert ‘advice’ ‘English is now seen as a “basic skill” which all children require if they are fully to participate in 21st century civil society ... It can now be used to communicate to people from almost any country in the world … We are fast moving into a world in which not to have English is to be marginalised and excluded.’ David Graddol, 2006

48. Stefan ColliniThe changing, or changed university • The idea of a university has been corrupted by subordination to short-term instrumental, reductive, generally economic goals. • Students are seen less as seekers after truth and knowledge and more as consumers. • The evaluation of research, and of concomitant funding, focuses on ‘impact’ factors that have little bearing on how research quality is generated. • A small number of ‘elite’ universities are exceptionally well funded, while a large number of poorly-funded institutions have limited research capacity. • Quality in dynamic departments has been undermined by the creation of suspect, ever-larger inter-disciplinary units.

49. Stefan Collini: the British experience • Administration has become top-down management inspired by principles from commerce. • Universities are run as businesses and no longer receive government funding for teaching activities. Foreign students pay exorbitant fees, while which most British and EU students take on large loans to cover fees. • Reliance on market forces results in essential subjects, especially in the humanities, foreign languages in particular, being eliminated for short-term financial reasons. • An excessive number of ‘for profit’ institutions of dubious quality can call themselves universities. As in the USA, venture capital involvement and shareholder expectations are undermining academic autonomy and self-definition.

50. Linguistic justice in the EU • It is arguable that the EU practices equality between 24 official and working languages, in speech and writing, for some key purposes. • It is arguable that some languages, and their speakers, have more rights than others in managing the affairs of the EU, its institutions and funded activities. • Linguistic hegemony?