The Age of Nationalism, 1850–1914

1. The Age of Nationalism, 1850–1914 CHAPTER 25

2. Napoleon III in France

3. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte easily won the presidential election of December 1848. • Louis Napoleon believed that government should give particular focus to helping the people economically. • When the National Assembly failed to change the constitution so Louis Napoleon could run for a second term, he dismissed the Assembly and seized power in 1851. • He called on the French people to legitimize this action and received the overwhelming majority of the vote. The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon

4. Louis Napoleon, proclaimed Napoleon III, experienced both success and failure between 1852 and 1870. • Napoleon III granted workers the right to form unions and embraced other pro-labor measures. • In the 1860s, he liberalized his empire. • In 1870 he granted France a new constitution, moving France further in the direction of democracy. Napoleon III’s Second Empire

5. Nation Building in Italy and Germany

6. Three approaches to unifying Italy: • Mazzini’s centralized democratic republic. • Vincenzo Gioberti’s federation of existing states headed by the Pope. • Italian nation built around aristocratic kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont. Italy to 1850

7. Cavour (head of Sardinian government, 18501861) sought to unify northern and central Italy under Sardinian rule. • With French aid, he defeated Austria in 1859 and gained Lombardy. • Central Italy voted to join Sardinia. • Giuseppe Garibaldi led a patriotic expedition to the kingdom of Two Sicilies, overthrew the government, and presented southern Italy and Sicily to Sardinia (1860). Cavour and Garibaldi in Italy

8. German customs union (Zollverein) unified the northern German states, but excluded Austria. • The national uprising in Italy made a profound impression in the German states. • William I of Prussia sought to reform the army and strengthen the state. • The parliament rejected the new military budget in 1862 and the liberals triumphed in new elections. • William called on Otto von Bismarck to head a new ministry and defy the parliament. Germany Before Bismarck

9. Otto von Bismarck delivered his “blood and iron” speech in 1862. It set the tone for his future policies. Bismarck was determined to build a strong, unified German state, with Prussia at its head. “Germany does not look to Prussia’s liberalism, but to her power. . . . The great questions of the day are not to be decided by speeches and majority resolutions— that was the mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by blood and iron!” —Otto von Bismarck, 1862 Building a German Nation

10. In the early 1800s, German-speaking people lived in a number of small and medium-sized states as well as in Prussia and the Austrian Hapsburg empire. • Napoleon’s invasions unleashed new forces in these territories. Taking Initial Steps Toward Unity

11. Between 1806 and 1812, • Napoleon made important territorial changes in German-speaking lands. • He annexed lands along the Rhine River for France. • He dissolved the Holy Roman Empire by forcing the emperor of Austria to agree to the lesser title of king. • He also organized a number of German states into the Rhine Confederation. Napoleon Raids German Lands

12. At first, some Germans welcomed the French emperor • a hero with enlightened, modern policies. • He encouraged freeing the serfs, • made trade easier, • abolished laws against Jews. • Not all Germans appreciated Napoleon and his changes. • As people fought to free their lands from French rule, they began to demand a unified German state.

13. Napoleon’s defeat did not resolve the issue. • Metternich pointed out that a united Germany would require dismantling the government of each German state. • Instead, the peacemakers created the German Confederation, a weak alliance headed by Austria. Congress ofVienna

14. In the 1830s, Prussia created an economic union called the Zollverein (TSAWLfur yn). • dismantled tariff barriers between many German states. • Germany remained politically fragmented. • Frankfurt Assembly in 1848, • liberals at the again demanded German political unity. • They offered the throne to Frederick William IV of Prussia. • The Prussian ruler, however, rejected the notion of a throne offered by “the people.” Economic Changes Promote Unity

15. strong willed. • master of Realpolitik (ray AHL poh lee teek), or realistic politics based on the needs of the state. • power was more important than principles. • Although Bismarck was the architect of German unity, he was not really a German nationalist. • His primary loyalty was to the Hohenzollerns (hohun TSAWLurnz), • the ruling dynasty of Prussia, who represented a powerful, traditional monarchy. • he hoped to bring more power to the Hohenzollerns. Master of Realpolitik

16. As Prussia’s prime minister, • built up the Prussian army. • the liberal legislature refused to vote for funds for the military. • In response, Bismarck strengthened the army with money that had been collected for other purposes. • With a powerful, well-equipped military, he pursue an aggressive foreign policy. • Over the next decade, Bismarck led Prussia into three wars. Each war increased Prussian prestige and power and paved the way for German unity. Strengthening the Army

17. Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark in 1864 war over Schleswig-Holstein. • The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 resulted in a Prussian victory and the establishment of the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership. The Taming of the Parliament • Bismarck conciliated parliamentary opposition and established universal manhood suffrage Bismarck and the Austro-Prussian War, 1866

18. Bismarck used a diplomatic pretext to spark a war with France. • The war gained Bismarck the support of the southern German states. • Franco-Prussian War of 18701871 ended in Prussian victory and the absorption of southern Germany into the new German Empire The Franco-Prussian War, 1870–1871

19. Bismarck’s first formed an alliance in 1864 with Austria. • Prussia and Austria then seized the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein from Denmark. • After a brief war “liberated” the two provinces, • divided the spoils. • Austria was to control administer Holstein and • Prussia was to control Schleswig. • In 1866, Bismarck invented an excuse to attack Austria. • The Austro- Prussian War lasted just seven weeks and ended in a decisive Prussian victory. • Prussia then annexed, or took control of, several other north German states. • Bismarck dissolved the Austrian-led German Confederation • created a new confederation dominated by Prussia. • Austria and four other southern German states to remain independent. • Bismarck’s motives, “We had to avoid leaving behind any desire for revenge,” he later wrote. War With Denmark and Austria

20. In France, the Prussian victory over Austria angered Napoleon III. • A growing rivalry between the two nations led to the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. • Germans recalled only too well the invasions of Napoleon I some 60 • years earlier. • Bismarck played up the image of the French menace to spur German nationalism. • Napoleon III did little to avoid war, hoping to mask problems at home with military glory. • Bismarck furthered the crisis by rewriting and then releasing to the press a telegram that reported on a meeting between King William I and the French ambassador. Bismarck’s editing of the “Ems dispatch” made it seem that William I had insulted the Frenchman. • Furious, Napoleon III declared war on Prussia, as Bismarck had hoped. • A superior Prussian force and other German states, smashed the badly organized and poorly supplied French soldiers. • Napoleon III, old and ill, surrendered within a few weeks. FranceDeclares War on Prussia

21. Delighted by the victory over France, princes from the southern German states and the North German Confederation persuaded William I of Prussia to take the title kaiser(KY zur), or emperor. In January 1871, • German nationalists celebrated the birth of the Second Reich, or empire. • A constitution drafted by Bismarck set up a two-house legislature. • The Bundesrat(BOON dusraht), or upper house, was appointed by the rulers of the German states. • The Reichstag (RYKS tahg), or lower house, was elected by universal male suffrage. • the Bundesrat could veto any decisions of the Reichstag, real power remained in the hands of the emperor and his chancellor. Birth of the German Empire

22. Nation Building in the United States

23. Split between slave-holding South based on big plantation agriculture and North built on smaller family farms. • Industrialization in North linked to development of large-scale cotton cultivation in South. • Conflict over whether lands seized from Mexico in Mexican-American War of 1848 should be slave or free. • Secession of eleven southern states from Union following Abraham Lincoln’s election as president led to civil war (186061). • Northern victory strengthened U.S. industrialization, nationalism; freed black slaves in South but ultimately confirmed their second-class status. Growth and Division

24. The Modernization of Russia

25. By 1815, Russia the largest, most populous nation in Europe and a great world power. Russia had acquired a huge multinational empire, part European and part Asian Since the 1600s, • the Russian frontier spread eastward across Siberia to the Pacific. • Peter the Great and Catherine the Great had added lands on the Baltic and Black seas, • tsars in the 1800s had expanded into Central Asia. • Russia had immense natural resources. • Western Europeans • disliked its autocratic government • feared its expansionist aims. • Despite efforts by Peter and Catherine to westernize Russia • remained economically undeveloped. • By the 1800s, tsars saw the need to modernize but resisted reforms that would undermine their absolute rule. Conditions in Russia

28. rigid social structure. • Landowning nobles dominated society • rejected any change that would threaten their privileges. • The middle class was too small to have much influence. • The majority of Russians • serfs, or laborers bound to the land and to masters • Most serfs were peasants. • Others might be servants, artisans, or soldiers forced into the tsar’s army. • As industry expanded, some masters sent serfs to work in factories, but took much of their pay. • Russia’seconomy would remain backward, • landowning nobles had no reason to improve agriculture and took little interest in industry. Russia’s Social Structure

29. tsars had ruled with absolute power, • imposing their will on their subjects. • Occasionally , the tsars made attempts at liberal reform, • easing censorship • making legal and economic reforms to improve the lives of serfs. • the tsars drew back from their reforms • feared losing the support of nobles. Ruling With Absolute Power

30. Alexander II came to the throne in 1855 • His reign was the pattern of reform and repression (like his father and grandfather, Alexander I and Nicholas I.) • Became tsar during the Crimean War. • The Crimean War • Russia tried to seize Ottoman lands along the Danube River. • Britain and France stepped in to help the Ottoman • ended in a Russian defeat, revealed the country’s backwardness. • Russiahad only a few miles of railroads, • military was inefficient. Emancipation and Stirrings of Revolution

31. The “Great Reforms” • Crimean War of 18531856 versus Britain, France, Sardinia, Ottoman Empire showed backwardness of Russian transport system, military. • Serfs freed as part of modernization program (1861). • Other reforms followed: strengthening of local self-government, modernization of legal system, relaxation of censorship. The Industrialization of Russia • Two waves of industrialization: • Construction of privately owned railroads (18601880). • Construction of state-owned railroads, coal and steel industry financed by foreign investment under Minister of Finance Sergei Witte (18921903). Change

32. After the Crimean War • Liberalsdemanded changes, • students demonstrated, seeking reform. • 1861 Alexander II finally agreed to reforms • emancipation, or freeing of the serfs. • Freedom brought problems. • Former serfs had to buy the land they had worked, • many were too poor • the lands allotted to peasants were often too small to farm efficiently or to support a family. • Peasants remained poor, and discontent • emancipation was a turning point. • Many peasants moved to the cities • jobs in factories • boosted the drive for further reform. Freeing the Serfs

33. Alexander set up a system of local government. • Zemstvos elected assemblies • responsible for roadrepair, schools, and agriculture. Through • legal reforms • trial by jury, • eased censorship. • Military service terms were reduced, • Brutal discipline was limited. • Alexander encouraged the growth of industry, which still relied heavily on agriculture. Introducing Other Reforms

34. Alexander’s reforms failed to satisfy many Russians. • Peasants had freedom but not land. • Liberals wanted a constitution and an elected legislature. • Radicals, who had adopted socialist ideas from the West, demanded more revolutionary changes. The • 1870 Tsar moved away from reform and toward repression. • some socialists went to live and work among peasants, • preaching reform and rebellion. They had little success • The movements failure, combined with renewed government repression, sparked anger among radicals. • Some turned to terrorism. • March 13, 1881, terrorists assassinated Alexander II. Revolutionary Currents

35. Alexander III response to his father’s assassination • revived the harsh methods of Nicholas I. • wipe out liberals and revolutionaries, • increased the power of the secret police, • restored strict censorship, • exiled critics to Siberia. • launched a program of Russification • suppressing the cultures of non-Russian peoples • one language, Russian, • one church, the Russian Orthodox Church. • Persecution 0f Poles, Ukrainians, Finns, Armenians, Muslims, Jews. Crackdown

36. Russia had a large Jewish population • From carving up Poland and expanded into Ukraine. • Under • persecution of Jewish people in Russia increased. • limited the number of Jewish people who were allowed to study in universities • and practice certain professions. • forced them to live in restricted areas. • encouraged pogroms, or violent mob attacks on Jewish people. • Gangs beat and killed Jewish people and • looted and burned their homes and stores. • many left Russia. • They became refugees, or people who flee their homeland to seek safety elsewhere. • Large numbers of Russian Jews went to the United States. Persecution and Pogroms

37. Russia finally entered the industrial age under Alexander III and his son Nicholas II. • In the 1890s, Nicholas’ government focused on • economic development • encouraged the building of railroads to connect iron and coal mines with factories and to transport goods • secured foreign capital to invest in industry and transportation • Trans-Siberian Railroad, • linked European Russia to the Pacific Ocean. The Drive to Industrialize

38. a result of industrialization. • Nobles and peasants opposed it, fearing the changes it brought. • created new social ills • peasants flocked to cities to work in factories. • Instead of a better life, they found long hours and low pay in • dangerous conditions. • In the slums around the factories, poverty, disease, and discontent multiplied. • Radicals sought supporters among • Socialists often handed out pamphlets at factory gates • preached the revolutionary ideas of Karl Marx. Political and social problems increased

39. War broke out between Russia and Japan in 1904, • Nicholas II called on his people to fight for “the Faith, the Tsar, and the Fatherland.” • Despite all of their efforts, the Russians suffered one humiliating defeat after another. Turning Point: Crisis and Revolution

40. Military disasters unleashed pent-up discontent created by years of oppression. • Protesters poured into the streets. • Workers went on strike, demanding shorter hours and better wages. • Liberalscalled for a constitution and reforms. • a young Orthodox priest organized a peaceful march for Sunday, January 22, 1905. • Marchers flowed through the streets of St. Petersburg toward the tsar’s Winter Palace. • carried holy icons and pictures of the tsar. • brought a petition for justice and freedom. • Fearing the marchers, • the tsar had fled the palace and called in soldiers. • As the people approached, they saw the troops • gunfire rang out. • Hundreds of men and women fell dead or wounded in the snow. • “The tsar has deserted us! They shot away the orthodox faith.” • The slaughter marked a turning point for Russians. • “Bloody Sunday” killed the people’s faith and trust in the tsar. Bloody Sunday

41. In the months that followed Bloody Sunday, discontent exploded • Strikes multiplied. • workers took over local government. • In the countryside, peasants revolted and demanded land. • Minority nationalities called for autonomy • Terrorists targeted officials, • some assassins were cheered as heroes • Nicholas was forced to announce sweeping reforms. • October Manifesto, • he promised “freedom of person, conscience, speech, assembly, and union.” • He agreed to summon a Duma, or elected national legislature. • No law, he declared, would go into effect without approval by the Duma. The Revolution of 1905

42. The manifesto won over moderates, • Leaving Socialists isolated. • These divisions helped the tsar, who had no intention of letting strikers, revolutionaries, and rebellious peasants challenge him. • In 1906, the first Duma met, • tsar quickly dissolved it when leaders criticized the government. • Nicholas then appointed a new prime minister, Peter Stolypin(stuhLIP yin). • Arrests, pogroms, and executions followed as the conservative Stolypin sought to restore order. • Stolypin soon realized that Russia needed reform, not just repression. • To regain peasant support, he introduced • moderate land reforms. • strengthened the zemstvos • improved education. • the reforms were too limited • did not meet the broad needs of most Russians, • dissatisfaction still simmered. • Stolypinwas assassinated in 1911. • By 1914, Russia was still an autocracy, but one simmering with unrest. Results of the Revolution

43. Lost war with Japan (19041905) plus demands of business and professional people, workers, and peasants for political power led to Revolution of 1905. • In response Tsar granted new constitution, with elective assembly, the Duma. The Revolution of 1905

44. The Responsive National State, 18711914

45. Bismarck conciliated liberals, waged Kulturkampf against Catholics, 18701878. • A drop in world agricultural prices led Germany to high tariffs to protect German farmers. • In 18831884 Bismarck passed social security laws to prevent the spread of socialism. These included old-age pensions and national health and accident insurance. • In 1890 the new German Emperor, William II, fired Bismarck. The German Empire

46. Rebellion in Paris against conservative cession of Alsace-Lorraine to Germans, March 1871 (Paris Commune). Defeated in bloody fighting. • Moderate republicans Leon Gambetta, Jules Ferry established free compulsory education for girls and boys (1886), legalized unions. • Teachers in new public school system spread republican ideas, undermined grip of Catholic Church schools on rural thinking. • In 189899 Dreyfus affair increased tension between republicans and Catholics (Alfred Dreyfus was a Jewish army captain falsely accused of treason). Republican France

47. Extension of franchise in 1832, 1867, 1884 (universal manhood suffrage). • Between 19061914 Liberal party defeated aristocratic conservatives in House of Lords, raised taxes on rich to fund national health insurance, unemployment benefits, pensions, and so on. • Irish nationalists demanded political autonomy and Irish Protestants in north resisted. Great Britain and Ireland

48. Due to ethnic divisions the Austro-Hungarian Empire was unable to harness nationalism as other major European states did after 1870. The Austro-Hungarian Empire

49. Removal of most of Jews’ legal disabilities between 1791 (France) and 1871 (Germany). • Jews became prominent in journalism, medicine, law, finance, railroad building. • Stock market crash of 1873 catalyzed vicious anti-Semitism. Conservative and extremist nationalist politicians used anti-Semitism to mobilize support; for example, in Vienna. • In Russia from 1881 government officials used anti-Semitism to channel popular resentment. Jewish Emancipation and Modern Anti-Semitism

50. The Socialist International • The Socialist International nominally integrated socialist parties throughout Europe. • Unions and Revisionism • Several factors combined to blunt the radical thrust of socialism. • Nationalist and patriotic appeals were at least as attractive to workers as socialism. • Workers’ standard of living rose substantially in the second half of the 1800s. • The growth of labor unions and their legalization reflected increased focus of worker and socialist activists on “bread-and-butter” wage issues rather than the violent seizure of political power. • “Revisionist” Marxists such as German Edward Bernstein argued for “evolutionary socialism” that will not involve violent seizure of political power. • Socialism varied from country to country. Marxism and the Socialist Movement