Positivistic versus Naturalistic Inquiry

1. Positivistic versus Naturalistic Inquiry • This is a 100 year old debate • Is often correlated to research methodology • Is a philosophy on the way we think about human phenomenon & research • Can be integrated within methodology, but philosophically they are very different • Is the foundation for how we design research

2. Positivistic Inquiry Naturalistic Inquiry (Constructivism)Quantitative Triangulated QualitativeSolomon DesignBlended DesignsPost-modern -four group design - use quantitative -pretest-treat-post test & qualitative -research self -pretest-no treat- post test methods -novel sounding -no pre- no treat- post test lacks theory -random group Quasi-ExperimentalGrounded Theory Phenomenology -validated tools -two of three -theory building - descriptiveExp. controls -Basic Social Process - interpretive - hermeneuticDescriptiveExperimental Design - quantitative orEthnography -random sample qualitative methods -living in the experience -control group -cultural immersion -a treatment given Case Study-single-double cases -In-depth analysis - comparative analysisAction ResearchAdequate time commitment Collaborative effort Openness to change Quality of data collection and analysis Impact on one’s practice

3. Positivistic Inquiry Naturalistic Inquiry (Constructivism)Quantitative Triangulated QualitativeSolomon DesignBlended DesignsPost-modernQuasi-ExperimentalGrounded Theory PhenomenologyConstant Comparative AnalysisDescriptiveExperimental DesignEthnographyCase StudyScientific Rigors by DesignValidity & Reliability (internal-external) Conceptual Framework Developed Descriptive Vividness Statistical Inference Methodological CongruenceGeneralizability Analytical PrecisenessTemporality Theoretical Connectedness Selection and Bias Heuristic RelevanceMeasurement validity / reliability Trustworthiness, Credibility, Controlling confounders and AuditabilityAppropriate study design for the questions Confirmability, transferability Stylistic & Personal Relevance, Heuristic

4. Sample Size by DesignPositivistic Inquiry Naturalistic Inquiry (Constructivism)Quantitative Triangulated QualitativeSolomon DesignBlended DesignsPost-modern Power Analysis 20-40 1 Quasi-ExperimentalGrounded Theory Phenomenology >40 10-1000 10-saturation (10-30) DescriptiveExperimental Design1-12Ethnography Power Analysis 1Case Study1-2Action Research?-100

5. Assumptions of Positivistic Thinking page 1 • Reality is singular, tangible, & and can be dissected • The researcher and those being studied are independent • Time and context-free generalizations are possible • Inquiry is value-free singular reality value free Positivistic thinking independent variables generalizable

6. Assumptions of Positivistic Thinking • There are real causes or at least high probability of a relationship. • We believe we can have independent and dependent variables as separate entities • Validity of a design is very critical to results singular reality value free Positivistic thinking cause & effect validity independent variables generalizable

7. Assumptions of Positivistic Thinking page 3 • Reliability is based on how the design is reproducible • Generalizability is related to good internal validity and reliability with comparable samples • Hypothesis testing value-free reliability hypothesis testing singular reality Positivistic thinking cause & effect validity generalizable independent variable

8. Assumptions of Naturalistic Inquiry • Realities are multiple, pluralistic, and holistic • The researcher cannot really be separated from those being studied and relation-ships are explained • hypotheses are time and context bound - they are only working statements multiple realities naturalistic inquiry hypothesis is a focus area researcher & subject connected

9. Assumptions of Naturalistic Inquiry • All entities are in a state of mutual simultaneous shaping • Inquiry is value-bound • Validity is designed into the process • Reliability & general- izable are not concepts of value with this thinking multiple realities inquiry is value bound Naturalistic inquiry hypothesis is a focus area researcher & subject connected thick description

10. Validity Internal and external reliability Hypothesis testing Statistical inferences Independent and dependent variables Variable controls Generalizability Descriptive vividness Methodological congruence Analytical preciseness Theoretical connectedness Heuristic relevance Others Differences in Scientific Rigorpositivistic naturalistic

11. Tools surveys, questionnaires objective assessment & identification Measure the dependent variable Convert to numeric symbols Apply statistical inferences to numbers Large sample sizes help withconfidence levels Tool it is the investigator by interview, focus groups, & observation Data is subjective and objective. It is collected & not measured Themes or clusters are identified and data is sorted in a theme analysis The themes are supported by participants or experts Data Collection Differencepositivistic naturalistic

12. Statistical significance for pre-post treatment Statistical correlations & relationships identified Probability of errors & confidence identified Causal relationships The exploration & description of a phenomenon Identification of linkages, relationships, or interpretations based on theory connections Results are themes, clusters of ideas, or theory constructs Differences in Results positivistic naturalistic

13. Positivistic Discussion of Results • 250 nurses were surveyed with an 80% response rate or N=200. Questions were rated using the Likert 5 scale. Question 1 had a mean of 4.2 with a S.D. of 0.5 suggesting the nurses had favorable opinions about continuing education. Compared to a 1994 survey asking the same question, there was a statistical difference that was less favorable (mean 3.1, S.D. 0.7, p<.05)

14. Naturalistic Description • I sat in the classroom as a peripheral member staying as unobtrusive as possible. The instructor came out from behind her desk, sitting on the edge as she opened with a question that brought all eyes in the room to meet her own eyes. She paused - looked at the eyes of the students. • The instructor displayed immediacy from the moment she started the class.

15. Ethics and Research • Starts with the study purpose, design, methods of measurement, and subjects • Guidelines for all of these • It is still a concern today • More recent ethical issues are: • Fabrication of a study • Falsification or forging of data • Dishonest manipulation of the design or methods • Plagiarism • 50% of the top 50 research institutions in US have been investigated for research fraud

16. Ethical Problems in Historyhttp://helix.nih.gov:8001/ohsr/mpa/45cfr46.php3 • Nazi medical experiments (1933-1945) • Tuskegee syphilis study by the USPHS (1932-1972) • Willowbrook study (1950-1970) Hepatitis study • Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital study with live CA cells in 1960s

17. Ethical Problems in History • University –Atomic Energy Government Exp. • 18 men and women injected with plutonium to determine body distribution (at the time said to be terminal) 1945-47 • 20 subjects ages 63-83 given doses of radioactive radium and thorium inj. or oral. 1961-65 • 64 male inmates at Washington St. Prison had testicular radiation to determine the smallest does to makes someone sterile. 1963-70 • 125 retarded residents were fed radioactive ir9n and calcium to see if a diet rich in cereal would block the digestion of those two minerals. 1946-56

18. Nuremberg Code-1949 • Voluntary consent • Must yield fruitful results for society • Anticipated results justify the type of experiment • Avoids all unnecessary physical-mental injury • Cannot do studies that have a known injury or death unless the exp. Physician is a subject • Risk does not out weight humanitarian benefit • Proper precautions to prevent injury, dis., death • Conducted by qualified persons • Subjects can always stop the study • Researcher must always be ready to stop the study (risk)

19. Declaration of Helsinki-1964-84 • Differentiated therapeutic vs. nontherapeutic research • Clinical vs. Basic • Greater care to protect subjects in nontherapeutic research • There must be a strong, independent justification for exposing a healthy vol. to substantial risk • The investigator is to protect the health and life of research subjects

20. The Belmont ReportThree Ethical Principles • Principle of respect for persons • Right to self determination and freedom to participate or not • Principle of Beneficence • Do no harm to others • Principle of Justice • Treat everyone fairly without discrimination • Led to USDHHS Code on Ethics • Title 45, Part 46 (45 CFR 46) • Office of Human Subjects Research (OHSR) within NIH • http://helix.nih.gov:8001/ohsr

21. Institutional Review Board • IRB review process 4-6 weeks • Consent forms (voluntary subjects) • Disclosure forms • Confidentiality • Compensation disclosure • Ethics documented in the research • Accountability to rules, regulations, and legal entities

22. The Literature Review • Primary Sources • Secondary Sources • Theoretical literature • Empirical literature • Integrative reviews (Evidence Based Research) • www. clinicalevidence.com/ • www.cochrane.org/ • www.guideline.gov • www.ahcpr.gov/clinic/

23. Definition of a Literature Review • A systematic and explicit approach to the identification, retrieval, and bibliographical management of independent studies … locating information … synthesizing … developing guidelines …

24. Purposes of the Lit. Review • Facilitate development of the Conceptual Framework by summarizing knowledge • Clarify the research topic • Clarify the research problem • Verify the significance of the research problem • Specify the purpose of the study • Describe relevant studies or theories • Develop definitions of major variables • Select a research design, data measurement, data collection & analysis, & interpret findings