Research Methods

1. Research Methods Modules 2 and 3

2. Class Experiment This is a study of some factors that may affect the solution of anagrams or scrambled words. A list of letter combinations that can be unscrambled to create common English words will be presented. No proper (capitalized) nouns, abbreviations, or foreign words appear. Solve each anagram in the spaces below. If you are having difficulty, raise your hand. I will give you a hint. Example: DORW Answer __________________

4. NORC

5. NOONI

6. MATOOT

7. PREPPE

8. TEBE

9. EAP

11. Class Experiment This is a study of some factors that may affect the solution of anagrams or scrambled words. A list of letter combinations that can be unscrambled to create common English words will be presented. No proper (capitalized) nouns, abbreviations, or foreign words appear. Solve each anagram in the spaces below. If you are having difficulty, raise your hand. I will give you a hint. Example: DORW Answer __________________

13. LUBL

14. CALEM

15. NUKKS

16. SEUMO

17. BAZER

18. EAP

20. Experiment—Review • General Topic of study: effect of perceptual set on solving of anagrams. • What was the research question? • What was the hypothesis? • How was the hypothesis tested? • What were the results? • Alternative explanation of results and errors?

21. New subtopic: Introduction Modules 2 and 3: Research Methods

22. Introduction • How do we gain knowledge? • Sensory experience … but can be undependable and incomplete • Agreement with others … but majority does not always = truth • Expert opinion … but no one knows everything • Logic … but rational explanations not always best/true • Scientific method … that’s the one

23. Introduction • How do we gain knowledge (cont’d) • Scientific method • Includes rigorous testing of hypothesis and public nature of procedures and conclusions • Systematic testing of hypothesis, gathering of data, and analysis • Steps: • Form a question (usually from theory, event, daily experience) • State hypothesis (educated guess of answer to question) • Test hypothesis (systematic way of getting answer) • Report results (replication – if repeated and same results, more likely true) • Example of why use scientific method? • Question: If someone confessed to a murder in an online newsgroup would you notify the police? • When simply asked, 56.4% of subjects said they would • When experimentally tested (had it occur), only 3 of 200 newsgroup members notified police

24. The Scientific Method The scientific method is the process of testing our ideas about the world by: If the data don’t fit our ideas, then we modify our ideas, and test again.

25. Introduction • Goals of research • Describe • Explain • Predict • Control (causation) Research design (how study is set up) influences what type of conclusions you can reach.

26. Introduction • Important general terminology • Hypothesis: specific statement of expected results • Testable prediction • Subjects: persons/animals on whom study is conducted

27. Introduction • Important terms (cont’d) • Sample and population • Population: all possible members of group • Sample: representative subgroup of pop. • Want sample to be representative. • If representative, then can generalize to pop. • How to make sample representative? • Random sample: every member of pop has = chance of being selected • Stratified sample: take representative subgroups in proportions as they exist in pop • Sampling: process by which Ss are selected • Random assignment: when members of random sample are assigned randomly to experimental or control group

28. Introduction • Imp. terms (cont’d) • Variable: characteristic or factor that can assume different values (changes) • Examples – stress, alcohol use, gender, etc. • What we study in psychological research • Not the subjects (people in the study)—what you study in them • Confounding variables: uncontrolled variables that represent potential error in research (alternative explanations for results) aka extraneous variables • Difference btn experimental and control groups other than independent variable • Operational definition: term defined by how it is measured in research • How would you define…intelligence? dancing? happiness? aggression? etc. • Diagnostic criteria for Major Depression

29. Introduction • Imp. terms (cont’d) • Validity and reliability • Validity = how accurate are results (true) • Reliability = how consistent are results (consistency—would you get them again) • Test-retest (similar results from same test) • Parallel forms (do alternate versions agree) • Inter-rater (do diff judges/raters agree) • Split-half (do items referencing same issue score similarly)

30. New subtopic: other issues in research Modules 2 and 3: Research Methods

31. New major subtopic:Other issues in Research • Within this topic, we will discuss… • Research settings and their advantages and disadvantages • Types of measurements used in research

32. Other issues • Research Settings: where research occurs • Laboratory research: • Controlled setting, unnatural • People would not normally be there engaging in beh that study is examining • Advantages • Offers more control of extraneous variables • Can standardize procedures • Disadvantages • Artificial • May elicit atypical beh

33. Other issues (cont’d) • Research settings (cont’d) • Field research: • Naturally occurring setting; Ss already there engaging in beh • Advantages • Offers more realistic view of beh in natural settings • Disadvantages • Less control of extraneous variables • Less able to standardize procedures

34. Other issues (cont’d) • Research measurements: how data is quantified • Self-reports • Ind reports on past beh, thoughts, beliefs, etc. • Obtained through interviews, questionnaires, etc. • Advantages: able to study what you cannot directly observe • Disadvantages: • Distortion of responses (people lie) • Ability to be accurate can be limited (defense mechanisms, recall problems, diff perspectives)

35. Other issues (cont’d) • Research measurements (cont’d) • Behavioral observations • Any activity that can be observed • Examples →raising hand, blood pressure, etc. • Advantage → • Beh objectively measured • Disadvantage → • Inds may act differently when observed

36. Other issues (cont’d) • Research measurements (cont’d) • Archival Records • Data that already exists (collected by someone other than researcher) – data would exist if study did not occur • Examples → medical records, crime rates, newspaper stories, etc. • Advantage → • Observation does not influence data • Disadvantage → • Incomplete records • Not enough detail

37. Other issues (cont’d) • Research measurements – applied • Counting the number of cigarette butts on the ground in a smoking area. • Subjects rate their level of anger on scale of 1 – 10 • Reviewing correlation between GPA and SAT over the last 20 years • Counting the number of times a student leaves his seat • Scores on test used to see if teaching method works

38. New subtopic: research designs Modules 2 and 3: Research Methods

39. New major subtopic:Research Designs • Introduction • Research design → How study is set up • Influences procedures and conclusions—what can you say about what you are studying when you get the results • Describe • Explain • Predict • Control • Four types • Descriptive research (case study, survey research, and naturalistic observation) • Correlational research • Experimental research • Literature review (your term paper)

40. Research Designs (cont’d) • Descriptive • Case Study: • In-depth examination of one ind (or few) • Incl. use of interviews, observations, letters, diaries, reports from others, etc. • Uses • Source of insight/ideas (Piaget, Freud) • Describe rare cases (Dissociative Identity D/O) • Psychobiography (Erikson’s Young Man Luther) • Used to illustrate anecdotes

41. Research Designs (cont’d) • Descriptive (cont’d) • Case Study (cont’d) • Advantage • Able to study rare cases • Initial exploration of new cases • Disadvantages • Not as systematic—less control • No comparison

42. Research Designs (cont’d) • Descriptive (cont’d) • Survey research • Interview or questionnaire to lg grp of people • Attempt to estimate attitudes or beh’s of lggrp • Examples → political polls, epidemiology studies • Not simply because a survey is used • No manipulation of variables • Advantages • Easy to do • Lg amt of data quickly

43. Research Designs (cont’d) • Descriptive (cont’d) • Survey research (cont’d) • Disadvantages • People do not respond (either some items or completely) • Effect of wording • Ss may not know meaning of words • Ss may give answers acceptable rather than accurate • Questions may be poorly written • Ss more likely to agree to “not allowing” versus “forbidding”

44. Research Designs (cont’d) • Descriptive (cont’d) • Survey research (cont’d) • Disadvantages (cont’d) • Effect of wording (cont’d) • Actual wording influences → When asked about “assisting poor” 23 % of Ss said too much money was spent, BUT when asked about “welfare” 52% said too much spent • Order of questions → • “People should have freedom to express their opinions publicly.” • Different responses depending on whether prior question dealt with Catholic Church or Nazi Party.

45. Research Designs (cont’d) • Descriptive (cont’d) • Naturalistic-observation • Observe beh as it occurs in natural settings • Jane Goodall and gorillas • Advantage → • Able to see beh as it happens • Disadvantage → • Decreased control over conditions

46. Research Designs (cont’d) • Correlational research design • Research that attempts to find links or connections btn var’s so that if you know one var you can predict other • Attempt to find rel’s btn variables • How? Collect 2/more scores from ea S • Examples • TV violence and aggression • College grades and salary

47. Research Designs (cont’d) • Correlational research (cont’d) • Correlation results • Positive correlation = variables increase or decrease together (TV violence and aggression) • Negative correlation = increase in one variable assoc with decrease in other (optimism & illness) • Caution • Correlation btn psych var’s rarely perfect • Correlation does NOT equal causation • Can only say var’s are related • Cannot say causation → may be third variable • Illusory correlation: when connection appears to exist, but is actually random (when we believe rel exists, we tend to notice instances that confirm that belief)

48. Research Designs (cont’d) • Experimental research design • Research in which 1/more var’s is manipulated (controlled by researcher) to see if it causes changes in another var • To est cause and effect relationships btn variables

49. Research Designs (cont’d) • Experimental research (cont’d) • Variables in experimental research • Independent variable (IV): variable that is manipulated/controlled by researcher • Dependent variable (DV): variable that is affected by IV • Examples – “effect of ____ (IV) on ____ (DV)” • Increases in anxiety cause improvement in performance • Observing live models perform aggressive acts led to those children engaging in aggressive acts

50. Research Designs (cont’d) • Experimental research (cont’d) • Two groups of subjects • Experimental group: grp that gets IV • Control group: does not get IV • Both groups measured on DV • Important → only diff btn grps should be IV (random sampling and random assignment) • This is what allows you to say the IV causes a change in DV (i.e., make cause and effect conclusions) → Why?