Chapter 1 The Field of Psychology

1. Chapter 1The Field of Psychology “The purpose of psychology is to give us a completely different idea of the things we know best.” --unknown

2. Defining psychology • Derived from the Greek word psyche (meaning soul or mind) and logos (meaning discourse or study). • Defined as the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. • Behavior refers to almost any activity, voluntary or involuntary. • Mental processes include anything that the mind is capable of doing.

3. Theories • Theory--a general framework for scientific study. • Theories cover so much that they are usually too complicated to be directly tested or researched. • However, smaller aspects of them can be. When enough of these smaller parts prove true, the theory itself is supported. • A theory, then, is something like a tree, and its branches and leaves are testable ideas or assumptions.

4. Why does psychology have so many theories? • Psychologists narrow down their focus through the use of perspectives (theoretical orientation)—psychoanalytic, cognitive, etc. • Each theoretical perspective provides a different lens through which to examine behavior.

5. Psychologists--two basic types • Research psychologists--study the origin, cause, and results of certain behaviors. • Applied psychologists--make direct use of the findings of research psychologists; deal directly with people.

6. Four goals of psychology • 1.Describe Behavior • Symptoms of schizophrenia: delusions, hallucinations, “word salad,” social withdrawal • 2.Explain causes of behavior • Dopamine hypothesis

7. The Dopamine Hypothesis: • The notion that dopamine may be involved in schizophrenia comes from the discovered usefulness of drugs that block certain dopamine receptors in treating the disorder. • Because dopamine-blocking drugs are so often effective, it has been proposed that an over-activity of dopamine neurotransmission in the brain may cause schizophrenia. • Dopamine is further implicated by the fact that a schizophrenia-like psychosis can be induced by abusing amphetamines, which act on dopamine pathways. DOPAMINE has been linked to schizophrenia. In a brain with schizophrenia, far more dopamine neurotransmitters are released between neurons than in a normal brain.

8. 3.Predict how organisms will behave in the future • Use knowledge of other schizophrenic patients to help understand the course and development of the disease • Helpful in determining inherited risk factors • 4.Control behavior • Determining correct treatment for the individual so he or she may lead a productive life • Antipsychotic medication, therapy

9. History of psychology • Before psychology became a science, many strange theories existed concerning personality. • Early people thought that evil spirits were the cause of abnormal behavior. • Burning or torturing people in various ways was thought to be a helpful way of driving out spirits.

10. Trephination, alternately spelled trepanation, is a primitive surgical technique which involved chiseling a hole in the skull to expose the dura matter. • It is a practice which hails back to ancient times when it was believed that mental illness was caused by the presence of malevolent spirits within the head. Two heads with trephination instruments in position, 1573. ←dura matter

11. Humorism--a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers. • More advanced civilizations started to look for physical causes of mental disorders. However, their guesses and treatments are still not considered very “advanced” by today’s standards. • The Greeks believed everything (including personality) was made up of the four elements: fire, air, earth, and water. • In the body, the elements were thought to exist in the form of “four humors”-- blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm.

12. Too much of any element was thought to cause certain personality characteristics. • Thus, the Greeks thought personality could be changed by bloodletting--using knives or leeches to pierce the skin and release blood. • The Greeks characterized people into four personality types:

14. Some other past treatments… • Shock therapy • The spinning chair • The tranquilizing chair • Branding irons • “Ice pick” lobotomy

15. Phrenology Phrenology developed in the 1700’s--the study of the shape of the skull. It was believed that by “reading” the bumps on someone’s head one could determine their mental abilities and personality. Phrenology remained popular until the mid 1800’s.

16. Psychology as a science(beginning late 1800’s) • Charles Darwin • In his 1859 Origins of the Species, located humanity within the animal kingdom, and hence in the realm of natural science. • He showed that humans could be studied scientifically. • Darwin also inspired evolutionary psychology-- the study of human cognition and behavior with respect to their evolutionary origins.

17. Psychology officially became a science in 1879 when the first psychology laboratory was established. • Psychology as the scientific study of human behavior is only about 130 years old!

18. Early theorists • Wilhelm Wundt (1830-1890) • German professor—the “father of psychology” • Wundt founded the first formal laboratories for psychological research at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879. • Developed a theory called introspection—a detailed examination of one’s own thinking (looking inward). • Showed that the human mind can be studied in an objective, scientific manner. • Wundt’s studies focused mostly on perception and sensation (particularly vision), along with reaction time, attention, feelings, and associations.

19. William James (1842-1910) • Harvard professor—one of the founders of American psychology. • Developed a theory called functionalism which involves the organization of experience and stresses that the “making sense” out of nonsense is the mind’s principle goal. • Focused on how humans function and adapt to their environment. • Wanted to understand the purpose of consciousness.

20. Edward Bradford Tichener (1867-1927) • Cornell professor—another founder of American psychology. • Developed a theory called structuralism which focused on behavior as parts that fit together in a structure—how the physical, mental, and emotional combine in the human consciousness

21. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) • Known as the “father of psychoanalysis.” • Freud asserted we are influenced by things we are not aware of along with our childhood experiences. • Best known for: • his theories of the unconscious mind • the defense mechanism of repression • creating the clinical practice of psychoanalysis • his redefinition of sexual desire as the primary motivational energy of human life • his therapeutic techniques, including the use of free association • the interpretation of dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires.

22. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) • A Russian physiologist, psychologist, and physician. • Pavlov is widely known for first describing the phenomenon of classical conditioning– a form of associative learning.

23. John B. Watson (1878-1958) • John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner carried out the famous “Little Albert” study in 1920 at Johns Hopkins University.   • This was a landmark study because Watson was able to prove that emotional responses can be conditioned, or learned.   • Pavlov and Watson’s behavioral work led to B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning experiments ten years later.

24. Where are all the women? • There were not a lot of women in early psychology--women were not encouraged to pursue higher education. • Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939) Was the first woman to be granted a Ph.D in psychology in 1894. • Best known for her experimental work in animal behavior and motor theory development.

25. Approaches of Present-Day Psychology • Biopsychological Approach • Viewing behavior as the result of nervous system functions and biology. • Advantage: understanding biological aspects of behavior can help in developing treatment options for some disorders. • Disadvantage: does little to explain social or environmental influences on behavior. **EACH OF THESE APPROACHES PROVIDES A DIFFERENT LENS THROUGH WHICH TO EXAMINE BEHAVIOR

26. Phineas Gage (1823-1860) • Those taking the biopsychological approach would be particular interested in Phineas Gage--a man whose behavior was shaped by physical changes. • He was an American railroad construction foreman. • He is remembered for his incredible survival of an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and for that injury's reported effects on his personality and behavior--effects so profound that friends saw him as "no longer Gage."

27. Psychoanalytic Approach • A system of viewing the individual as the product of unconscious forces. • Advantage: provides a framework for analyzing thought processes below the conscious level. • Disadvantage: Focuses on how people are products of mostly negative unconscious forces. • Psychologists associated with this viewpoint: Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung

28. Behavioral Approach • View behavior as the product of learning and associations. • Advantages: focuses on how the environment affects behavior; helps parents teach children appropriate behavior. • Disadvantages: disregards the concept of “free will.” • Psychologists associated with this approach: Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, B.F. Skinner

29. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) • An American psychologist, author, inventor, and social philosopher. He was a Professor of Psychology at Harvard University. • Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber (in which the behavior of rats and pigeons was shaped), innovated his own philosophy of science called Radical Behaviorism, and founded his own school of experimental research psychology. • Skinner asserted that human behavior is shaped by reinforcements and punishments. • Reinforcements strengthen behavior, whereas punishment has the effect of weakening behavior. • Skinner also argued ignoring a behavior--or not reinforcing it--would cause a behaviorto cease (extinction).

30. Tabula Rasa • Proponents of behaviorism generally subscribe to the tabula rasa thesis. • Tabula rasa is the belief that individuals are born without built-in mental content and that their knowledge comes from experience and perception. • The term in Latin equates to the English "blank slate" (which refers to writing on a slate sheet in chalk). • Our modern idea of this theory comes from English philosopher and physician John Locke. He published this idea in his piece An Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1690.

31. Cognitive Approach • Emphasizes how humans use mental processes to handle problems or develop certain personality characteristics. • Most popular approach used today! • Advantage: analyzes how thoughts affect behavior. • Disadvantage: does little to explain social or environmental influences on behavior.

32. Sociocultural Approach • Behavior viewed as strongly influenced by the rules and expectations of specific social groups or cultures. • Advantage: helps psychologists to counsel people from different cultures and to understand social influences on behavior. • Disadvantage: does not address physiological influences on behavior.

33. Humanistic Approach • Believing that people are basically good and capable of helping themselves. • Advantage: gives people power over their own lives and behavior. • Disadvantage: ignores role of heredity, too good to be true (no one is good all the time). • Psychologists associated with this approach: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow

34. Eclectic Approach • Borrowing from at least two of the theories to create one’s own system. • Advantage: combines components of different approaches to treat clients more effectively. • Disadvantage: can become a jumbled and disorganized way of dealing with an issue in therapy. ↑Eclecticism in architecture

35. Nature vs. Nurture The main debate in psychology today! The main difference among the modern schools of thought is the way in which they view human nature and what determines it… • Nature • Heredity • Biochemistry • Inborn Qualities Nurture • Family • Culture • Environment

36. Careers in Psychology • Most jobs in psychology require an advanced degree--either an M.A. (2 years beyond a B.A.--which is the degree one earns in the “normal” 4 years) or a doctorate (4-5 years beyond a B.A.). • The greatest proportion of psychologists work in some type of educational setting.

37. Clinical/Counseling Psychologists • Work with people who have mental or personal problems (such as marital problems, social difficulties, depression, eating disorders, etc.). • Administer psychological tests to diagnose and administer therapy to help patients understand themselves and others better. • Work in his/her own clinic, in private clinics with other psychologists, mental hospitals, industry, drug rehab centers, homeless shelters, or school systems

38. School/Educational Psychologists • Work with students, teachers, or administration. • Design and improve curriculum, administer psychological tests to students, design curriculum for students with learning disabilities, help students socially with learning disabilities or emotional impairments, or work as a consultant to the administration. • Work primarily in K-12 education; some work in regional centers or the medical clinics of institutes of higher education.

39. Environmental Psychologists • Work with industrial designers or personnel, or government personnel, usually as part of a group. • Study the effect of the environment on people where they work (ex: disasters, overcrowding, toxic materials, etc.) and also design desirable working conditions. • Work in private industry or government agencies.

40. Developmental/ Child Psychologists • Work with parents or other caretakers of children and directly with children themselves who have mental disabilities or problems. • Research and publish findings on child development; administer IQ and other psychological tests; work directly with parents in child-rearing. • Work in clinics, private practices, or universities.

41. Industrial Psychologists • Work with management personnel in industry; employees who have personal problems. • Work with management to improve working conditions, to obtain greater efficiency from the work force, to increase sales, and to keep the company’s image positive with the public; work with employees on any issues they might have, from difficult work conditions to problems at home. • Work in public and private industry, usually larger companies.

42. Engineering Psychologists • Work in private or public industry. • Design product or store layouts for efficiency; everything from studying how to design the instruments on an automobile to the best physical design for a shopping mall. • Work in architectural and design firms or in public or private industry.

43. Experimental Psychologists • Usually work by themselves or with a group doing research on various topics. • Research to understand better how the human operates physically or psychologically; their goal is to add to the literature. • Work at universities, clinics designed for administration of physical and psychological testing, laboratories.