As you come in,

1. As you come in, • The Materials: • Pick up the ½-sheet practice problem, a vocabulary packet, and a new notes packet. • Pass your Hardy Weinberg Fishy Frequencies Lab AND Hardy Weinberg Practice Problems forward. • The Plan: • Discuss the Fishy Frequencies essay (due Monday). • Discuss the vocabulary packet (due Friday). • Watch Living Together video. • Begin Origin and Evolution of Species notes. • The Assessment: • Hardy Weinberg Quiz (MONDAY) • HOMEWORK: • Write essay, review Hardy Weinberg, and begin vocab packet. Benchmark Tuesday

2. Benchmark Tuesday As you come in, • The Materials: • Pass up the Fishy Frequencies essay. • The Plan: • Review Hardy Weinberg Equation. (1 example) • Take Hardy Weinberg Quiz. • Rat Island Speciation Activity (45 minutes) • Begin Origin and Evolution of Species notes. • The Assessment: • Speciation Vocabulary Quiz – FRIDAY • HOMEWORK: • Review notes and continue speciation vocabulary assignment.

3. The Origin and Evolution of Species Chapters 14 and 15

4. Early Earth and the Origin of Living Things

5. Young Earth Theories • Theorists estimate that the Earth formed 4.6 billion years ago. • The early atmosphere probably contained H2O, CO2, CO, N2, CH4, and little or no O2. • Volcanic activity, lightning, and UV radiation were intense. • Fossilized prokaryotes date back to 3.5 billion years. • Life may have formed from nonliving things as long as 3.9 billion years ago.

6. Young Earth Timeline = 500 million years ago Earliest animals; diverse algae • Life may have developed from nonliving materials as early as 3.9 billion years ago Earliest multicellular eukaryotes? Earliest eukaryotes Accumulation of atmospheric O2 from photosyntheticcyanobacteria Billions of years ago Oldest known prokaryotic fossils Origin of life? Formation of Earth

7. How did life originate? • Remember Spontaneous Generation? Francesco Redi disproved the theory using fruit flies, meats, jars, maggots, etc. • The Theory of Biogenesis resulted. • Only living organisms can produced other living organisms. SO WHERE DID THE FIRST ORGANISM COME FROM? • 1920s Oparin and Haldane suggested that the Earth’s early atmosphere has a certain mix of gases that could form simple organic molecules in the presence of water and energy sources (Sun and lightning). • 1953 Miller and Urey proved that inorganic compounds can produce amino acids with water and electricity.

8. Water evaporates from the oceans. • The water vapor mixes with the other gases in the early atmosphere. • Lightning adds activation energy to begin an reaction. • Water vapor cools and condenses back to a liquid. • New liquid water contains amino acids, sugars, and nucleotide bases. CH4 3 Water vapor Electrode 2 NH3 H2 Condenser Coldwater 1 4 Cooled watercontainingorganiccompounds 5 H2O Sample forchemical analysis Monomers of proteins and nucleic acids can be produced from non-living matter.

9. Forming Polymers from the Monomers • Proteins • Miller & Urey Experiment: The amino acids formed peptide bonds for short periods of time to form very short protein strands, but the bonds broke quickly. No proteins resulted. Life did not form in the Miller & Urey experiment. • Theoretical explanation:Early amino acids were deposited on clay. The amino acids stuck to the clay and others deposited on the same piece of clay. Eventually, bonds formed between the amino acids since they were all “stuck” on the clay. • Nucleic Acids: • RNA is considered to have been early life’s genetic code. • RNA can be replicated using clay crystals. • Scientists believe that resulting RNA molecules developed their own replication system over time.

10. Forming Cells from the Polymers • Researchers have tested ways of enclosing molecules in membranes. • The path from molecules to cells remains unresolved.

11. Origin of Species

12. Example of Speciation • The origin of new species is called speciation. • Evolution has generally been thought of as a very gradual process • However, examples of rapid evolution have been observed • One example of rapid evolution occurred among mosquitoes who migrated into the London underground • In less than 150 years, Culexpipiens evolved into a new mosquito species, Culexmolestus. • The isolated mosquitoes adapted to their new underground environment. • They altered their prey, mating habits, and breeding patterns • Environmental barriers that isolate populations are just one of many mechanisms in the evolution of species.

13. What is a species? • Linnaeus used physical appearance to identify species when he developed the binomial system of naming organisms. • But appearance alone does not always define a species. • Example: Eastern and Western Meadowlarks

14. What is a species? • Similarities between some species (Meadowlarks) and variation within a species (Humans) can make defining species difficult • Humans exhibit extreme physical diversity

15. Species • Apopulation or group of populations whose members can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

16. Difficult to Establish a New Species • Two types of reproductive isolation prevent new species: • Prezygotic Isolation: (BEFORE A ZYGOTE FORMS) prevent reproduction by making fertilization unlikely • PostzygoticIsolation: (AFTER A ZYGOTE FORMS) hybrid offspring cannot reproduce

17. Prezygotic vs. Postzygotic Reproductive Isolation

18. Let’s Identify the Type of Reproductive Isolation Illustrated • Eastern and Western Meadowlark • Very similar appearance but different mating songs • Blue-footed boobies • Courtship ritual specific to one area • Plant species • Flower structures fit specific pollinators • Liger (Lion/tiger hybrid) • Ligers cannot reproduce. • Mule (Horse/donkey hybrid) • Mules cannot reproduce.

19. MECHANISMS OF SPECIATION Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation

20. Allopatric Speciation: Geographic barrier • Allopatric speciation: a physical barrier divides one population into two or more populations • When a population is cut off from its parent stock, species evolution may occur. • An isolated population may become genetically unique as its gene pool is changed by natural selection, genetic drift, or mutation. • As enough genetic differences are established, the two populations will no longer be able to breed successfully.

21. Allopatric Speciation: Islands • On the Galápagos Islands, repeated isolation and adaptation have resulted in adaptive radiation of 14 species of Darwin’s finches. • Adaptive radiation: a pattern of evolution; one species gives rise to many species in response to the creation of a new habitat or other ecological opportunity.

22. Sympatric Speciation • Sympatric Speciation: species evolves into a new species without a physical barrier • In sympatric speciation, a new species may arise without geographic isolation. • Example: Polyploidy in Plants • A failure in meiosis can produce diploid gametes • Self-fertilization can then produce a tetraploid zygote Parent species Zygote Meioticerror Self-fertilization Offspring maybe viable andself-fertile 2n = 6Diploid 4n = 12Tetraploid Unreduced diploid gametes

23. A Few Patterns in Species Evolution • Three patterns common when new species evolve: • Adaptative Radiation: (discussed earlier) • Coevolution: a species evolves in close relationship with another species • Example: Moth and Comet Orchid –As the foot-long flowers of the Comet Orchid developed, a moth with a foot-long tongue evolved to pollinate them. • Convergent Evolution: Species with similar traits develop in different parts of the world due to similar climate and geography • Example: Mara and a rabbit – unrelated genetically but developed similar body type, etc. because they inhabit similar niches

24. What’s a mara?

25. Two Theories on Rate of Speciation • Gradualism – Most scientists believe that evolution proceeds in small, gradual steps. • Punctuated Equilibrium –rapid spurts of genetic change cause species to diverge quickly; these periods punctuate longer periods when little changes in a species.

26. Speciation Activities Groups of Four: • Rat Islands – establish your own species (Groups Ato E) Individual: • Visualizing Vocabulary

27. Tracing Evolutionary History

28. Earth History • The fossil record chronicles macroevolution, which is evolution on a grand scale. • A geologic time scale has been established using the fossil record to organize the BIG PICTURE of how the earth and its inhabitants have evolved over millions of years.

30. Geologic Time Scale • The geologic time scale is a model that expresses the major geological and biological events in Earth’s history. • Organization of the Time Scale • Eon • Era • Period • Epoch • Development of the Time Scale • As geologists study the strata (rock layers), they collect fossils. • Radiometric dating uses chemistry of the rocks to measure an approximate age. • Scientists have built the geological time scale based upon fossils and the radiometric dating information.

31. Understanding the Time Scale Figure 14.5 (page 397) • Geologic Time Scale begins with the Earth’s formation 4.6 billion years ago. • Let’s discuss a scale model of the time scale. • Interacting with the Scale • Geologic Time Scale Tutorial • Geologic Time Scale Worksheet (attached to tutorial) • Geologic Time Scale notes (fill-in after tutorial) • Reference pages 396-400 in your textbook.

32. Macroevolution Cause: Continental Drift • Continental drift has played a major role in macroevolution. • Continental drift is the slow, incessant movement of Earth’s crustal plates on the hot mantle. EurasianPlate NorthAmericanPlate AfricanPlate PacificPlate Splitdeveloping NazcaPlate SouthAmericanPlate Indo-AustralianPlate Antarctic Plate Edge of one plate being pushed over edge of neighboring plate (zones of violent geologic events)

33. This movement has influenced the distribution of organisms and greatly affected the history of life. CENOZOIC Eurasia North America Africa India SouthAmerica Australia Antarctica • Separation of continents caused the isolation and diversification of organisms • Continental mergers triggered extinctions Laurasia Millions of years ago MESOZOIC Gondwana Pangaea PALEOZOIC

34. Macroevolution Cause: Continental Drift • Example of Isolation & Diversification : • Continental drift explains the distribution of lungfishes, which are freshwater fish that use a modified swim bladder to breathe air. • Lungfishes evolved when Pangaea was intact during the Paleozoic Era. • They were distributed around the world as crustal plates shifted during the Mesozoic Era. • New species evolved as plates shifted to new climates.

35. NORTHAMERICA ASIA EUROPE AFRICA SOUTHAMERICA AUSTRALIA = Living lungfishes = Fossilized lungfishes

36. Macroevolution Cause: Continental Drift • Plate tectonics, the movements of Earth’s crustal plates, are also associated with volcanoes and earthquakes. • California’s San Andreas fault is a boundarybetween two crustal plates

37. Macroevolution Cause: Continental Drift • By forming new islands, volcanoes can create opportunities for organisms • Example: Galápagos • But volcanic activity can also destroy life • Example: Krakatau

38. Macroevolution: Mass Extinctions • Mass extinctions were followed by diversification of life-forms. • At the end of the Cretaceous period (Mesozoic Era), many life-forms disappeared, including the dinosaurs. • These mass extinctions may have been a result of an asteroid impact or volcanic activity. • Every mass extinction reduced the diversity of life. • But each was followed by a rebound in diversity. • Mammals filled the void left by the dinosaurs.

39. ? Cretaceousextinctions 90 million years ago 80 70 65 60

40. Macroevolution: Mass Extinctions • Key adaptations may enable species to proliferate after mass extinctions. • Adaptations that have evolved in one environmental context may be able to perform new functions when conditions change. • Example: Plant species with catch basins, an adaptation to dry environments

41. CONNECTION: You may be living through a Mass Extinction Event right now… • Many scientists think a Mass extinction event is happening now. • A decrease in biodiversity is a threat to us all. • Humans are responsible for much of the problem due to habitat degradation, pollution, over-hunting, and poor conservation habits.

42. Cladistics

43. What is Cladistics? • A method of analyzing organisms that classifies them based on the order that they diverged from a common ancestor.

44. Necessary Vocabulary: Phylogenic Species Concept • Phylogenic Species Concept: BASED ON ANCESTORS • Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species. • The phylogenic species concept defines a species as a cluster of organisms that is distinct from other clusters and shows evidence of a pattern of ancestry and descent.

45. Necessary Vocabulary: Typological Species Concept • Typological Species Concept: BASED ON APPEARANCE • Aristotle and Linnaeus thought of each species as a distinctly different group of organisms based on physical similarities. • Based on the idea that species are unchanging, distinct, and natural types.

46. Necessary Vocabulary: Biological Species Concept • Biological Species Concept: BASED ON REPRODUCTION • The biological species concept defines a species as a group of organisms that is able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring in a natural setting.

48. Necessary Vocabulary: Characters • Characters: inherited features that vary among species • To classify a species, scientists construct patterns of descent by using characters. • Characters can be morphological or biochemical.

49. Necessary Vocabulary: Morphological Characters • Characters: inherited features that vary among species • Shared morphological characters suggest that species are related closely and evolved from a recent common ancestor. • Analogous characters are those that have the same function but different underlying construction. • Homologous characters might perform different functions, but show an anatomical similarity inherited from a common ancestor.

50. Necessary Vocabulary: Evolutionary Characters Compare birds and dinosaurs: • Hollow bones • Theropods have leg, wrist, hip, and shoulder structures similar to birds. • Some theropods may have had feathers. Haliaeetusleucocephalus Oviraptorphiloceratops