Xiaoyu ZENG 曾晓渝

1. A Theoretical Discussion about Typological Distance in Language Contact and Language Qualitative Change—— Exemplified Using a Number Extraordinary Chinese Languages语言接触的类型差距及语言质变现象的理论探讨——以中国境内几种特殊语言为例 Xiaoyu ZENG 曾晓渝

2. 1 Introduction引言 • In China there are a number of extraordinary languages, such as Dao, Ei, Mak and Hui Hui, which independently exist as mother tongues and are passed on through the generations. They are considered extraordinary because they are not the result of the differentiation of one parent language，but in fact the result of close contact between two or more different languages bringing about language qualitative change. Consequently, it is difficult to determine their exact position on a typological tree of languages. • 在中国境内存在着一些特殊的语言，比如倒话、诶话、莫语、回辉话等。这些语言是作为母语传承的独立语言，之所以特殊，是因为它们不是由某个祖语继承或分化来的，而是两种（或多种）不同语言深刻接触所导致的语言质变结果，因此难以在语言谱系树中确定它们的地位。

3. Language qualitative change is different from language decay，it is a form of language transformation. • Language qualitative change is a long process. The question is; can the typological differences between two or more closely contacting languages affect the variation that results from contact-induced change? Or, as the typological distance between languages is not uniform, can the size of typological distance between two intensely contact languages be reflected through the results of language qualitative change induced variation in fields such as the phonology, grammar and lexicon? • 语言质变是语言转换的表现形式之一。 • 在语言质变过程中，相互接触的两种（或多种）语言的类型差距是否对接触变异的结果发生作用？或者说，语言类型差距的大小不同，是否会使深度语言接触所发生的语言质变现象在语音、词汇、语法诸方面的结构变异存在指向差别？本文拟通过几种发生质变的特殊语言现象探讨这些问题。

4. 2.1 The Dao language 倒话 The Dao language is an extraordinary language of the Garze Tibeten region of Sichuan. Dao has some fascinating yet contradictory characteristics; On one hand most of the lexicon comes from Mandarin Chinese, On the other hand, on a grammatical and structural level through its SOV order ，it possesses a highly intimate compositional relationship with Tibetan（Acuo 2004）. 倒话是四川甘孜藏区的一种特殊语言。两百多年前一批汉族清兵被派驻当地，逐渐与当地人联姻繁衍成为如今使用倒话的居民。倒话最显著的特点在于：词汇主要来自汉语，语法主要来自藏语（SOV语序）（阿错2004）。 2 The basic characteristics and formative mechanisms of a few extraordinary Chinese languages中国境内几种特殊语言的基本特征及其形成机制

5. How was the Dao language formed? • One school of thought is that the extreme pressure for communication between the two groups led to the formation of Dao as an intermediate language for Han-Tibetan households and after two or three generations it ultimately became fixed (Acuo 2004). One problem with this hypothesis is the pidgin language created by an increased pressure for communication embodies the mutual simplification of both party’s mother tongues. The grammar of the Dao language has not lost its Tibetan characteristics, in fact it has added Mandarin Chinese quantity and passive sentence formation structures, seemingly becoming even more complicated. • 倒话是怎样形成的呢？ • 一种设想是：在汉、藏家庭里高度交际压力下形成的藏汉中介语的石化结果（阿错2004）。但这一设想的问题是，交际压力下形成的皮钦语或克里奥尔语是简化，而倒话保留了藏语语法，还增加了汉语被动句式等，更加复杂了。

6. Another school of thought is that Tibetan women who had entered the base by marriage gradually became bilingual. However, their ‘incomplete study’ resulted in a lexicon of Mandarin Chinese but with the complicated grammatical features being imported from Tibetan. Also, in order to distinguish their language from that of the surrounding Tibetan region and exhibit their position of financial and political superiority, the status-conscious Tibetan women within the base, spoke a unique language which was neither Tibetan nor Mandarin Chinese. This became a mother tongue and was passed through the generations. • 另一种设想是：当初嫁入汉族军营的藏族妇女逐渐成为藏汉双语者，她们对汉语的“不完全学习”形成 “倒话”，这种显示特殊群体身份的独特语言在特殊环境中作为母语传承下来。

7. 2.2 The Ei Language 诶话 • The Ei Language (also known as wu se hua) is an extraordinary language of the Rongshui County of Guangxi. • In Summary, on every structural level of the Ei language, Chinese and Tai Kadai components are intertwined and fused together to form a harmonious mixture, which is different from both Tai kadai languages and Mandarin (Zeng 、Gao2010）. • 诶话（五色话），是广西融水的一种特殊语言。诶话的结构与要素各层面里，汉语、侗台语言的成分是交错融合浑然一体的，它既不是侗台语言，也不是汉语（曾晓渝、高欢2010）。

8. · In Guangxi，despite the considerable influence of the prolonged linguistic dominance of both Mandarin Chinese and the Zhuang language on the languages of the ethnic minorities, due to their continued possession of independence, their languages remain essentially unchanged。However, the Ei language is an exception. According to local legend, throughout history the Rongshui region has been of military importance and the ancestry of the Ei people probably originates from the joint establishment of a garrison by groups of Tai-Kadai people and Han Chinese. • 在广西，尽管长期以来汉语和壮语影响很大，但各个少数民族语言依然具有独立性，并未发生本质变化。可是，诶话却是一个例外。传说诶话族群的先民是来自壮侗民族与汉人共同组建的当地驻军，因为历史上融水县地处军事要塞之地。

9. Considering the structural formation of the Ei language, the school of thought is that people from families created by the soldiers (being mostly of Zhuang ethnicity) were basically bilingual in both Mandarin and their ethnic dialects. Living in a army camp that was controlled by Han Chinese officers caused them to use Mandarin Chinese more in their everyday lives, and naturally they would import elements of it into their own languages, and vice-versa. One noteworthy fact is that these soldiers and their family’s special status determined that their language should be able to distinguish them from the neighbouring proletariat and their ‘dissimilar’ mindsets. This attitude contributed to the structural formation of the Ei language and led to it becoming a native language which was passed through the generations. • 对于诶话的形成机制，我们设想，当初以壮族为主的士兵及家属基本上都是汉语和本族语的双语者，由于生活在以汉族军官为权威的军营中，他们更多地使用汉语，他们的汉语中自然带有母语成分，反之亦然。值得强调的是，这群军人及家属的特殊身份，使他们有在语言上区别于周边老百姓的“别同”心态，而这种语言态度决定了诶话的形成，并作为母语传承下来。

10. 2.3 The Mak language 莫语 • The Mak language is a language spoken by all of the Mak and Ai-Cham people of Libo County, Guizhou.In the core lexicon of the language，words that have a related to those of the Sui language account for 90%， With respect to grammar，the three different languages are extremely similar; there are only few areas of subtle dissimilarity between the Mak language and the Sui and Buyei languages（Wang 2005）. • 莫语是贵州荔波布依族苗族自治县莫家、锦家人所讲的一种特殊语言，属于侗水语支。核心词方面，莫语-水语关系词在90％以上，语法方面，莫、水、布依基本一致，但极细微处布依语和水语略有差别时，莫语往往和布依语一致（王宇枫2005）。

11. According to research in the field, there is mutual recognition between the two peoples and marital relations between them are common. One portion of the population of Mak speakers is in fact comprised of Buyei people. It can’t be said that the underlying stimulus for the creation of the Mak language lies in the widespread bilingual systems found in Mak households, but rather through the sharing of their ethnic philosophy and social lives with the Buyei people which induced a gradual ‘Sui-Buyei transformation’, giving the language unique characteristics.（See Wang 2011）。 • 根据我们的田野调查，莫家人与布依族彼此认同，他们普遍结成婚姻关系，莫语者的民族成分是布依族。可以认为，莫语产生的最直接的动因在于莫家人当初普遍的水、布依双语制，由于与布依族共同的民族心理、社会生活，促使莫语逐渐形成了“水语布依语化”的独有特征（参见王宇枫2011）。

12. 2.4 The Hui Hui Language 回辉话 • The Hui Hui language is a language spoken by the Hui Hui ethnic group, who come from the settlements of Sanya, on Hainan Island. The qualitative change occurring in the Hui hui language, as a result of a prolonged period of intimate contact with the Cham languages, Chinese and the Hlai language among others, has given birth to an extraordinary and independent language, and transformed its fundamental Austronesian typological characteristics（Zeng、Yin 2011）. • 回辉话，是海南三亚回族人所讲的语言。回辉话是由占语与汉语、黎语等长期深度接触而发生质变的一种特殊的独立语言，已蜕变了南岛语（VSO）的基本类型特点（曾晓渝、尹世玮2011）。

13. Around the start of the Song Dynasty, the ancestors of the Hui people migrated from Champa (modern day Vietnam) to Sanya for either commercial or to avoid hardships. During the last thousand years, the early speakers of the Hui Hui language through their interaction with the Li ethnic minority became proficiently bilingual or even, in some cases multilingual. At the same time, the tremendous cohesive power of the Hui group’s Islamic religion and culture, has led to the constant preservation and construction of the language’s unique characteristics by the Hui Hui people. • 大约自宋代开始，三亚的回族先民或因经商或避难迁徙，从占城来到三亚，近千年来，回辉话的先民在与当地汉族、黎族人的交际过程中，成为熟练的双语者甚至多语者，同时，又由于回族伊斯兰教文化的强大凝聚力，使他们始终保持营造着本族群的语言特色，于是逐渐形成了特殊的回辉话。

14. 2.5 Summary 小结 • There are two types of underlying stimuli that essentially constitute the primary formative mechanisms of language qualitative change.The first type is where there are two different languages (language A and B), and an intense pressure for communication leads to the pidgin or creole language.The second type is within an environment of people bilingual in two languages and a feeling of separation from one group of people leads to them deliberately constructing their own language. • To the Dao, the Ei, the Mak and the Hui Hui languages,our inclination is that the second type is more likely. • 语言质变的形成机制（或根本动因）主要有两种：（1）A、B两种不同语言单语者在高度语言交际压力下产生皮钦语或克里奥尔化；（2）A、B双语人在特定环境中因其族群的别同心理而“蓄意造出”一种新语言。 • 我们推测倒话、诶话、莫话、回辉话的形成机制皆倾向于第二种。

15. A comparative analysis of the structure in the extraordinary Chinese languages中国境内特殊语言结构特点比较分析 • When researching language contact and variation, we usually divide the language subjected to contact related phenomena into a target language and a base language. Through our comparative analysis of the extraordinary languages in China, we have found distinct categorical differences in the defining characteristics of the first one hundred core words of the lexicon, the grammar and the phonology. Also, there is a definite correlation between these differences and the typological distance of the base and target languages. • 语言接触及变异研究中，通常将相接触的语言分为始发语和目标语。根据对中国境内特殊语言（前述几种及孙宏开等主编《中国的语言》中的材料）的比较分析，我们发现它们在一百核心词、语法、语音特征上有明显的类别差异，而这种差异与始发语和目标语的类型距离大小存在一定关系。

19. One thing worthy of attention is that there is an uneven typological distance between contacting languages in classes A and B. With regards to the grammatical and core lexical features that have resulted from language qualitative change, these two classes reflect the key characteristics of their respective target and base languages in a completely opposing manner. Yet they are united by the fact that the essential elements of their phonology are primarily of the base languages, and that generally the commonly used words are primarily of the target language. This shows that the latent ability of language phonology to resist interference is very strong, but in general change to the commonly used lexicon occurs more easily. • 值得注意的是甲、乙两类：相接触语言之间类型差距的大、小不同，其语言质变结果在核心词和语法特点两方面所体现的目标语、始发语主要特征正好相反；二者的一致之处在于语音要素以始发语为主，一般常用词以目标与为主，这说明语音的底层干扰力很强，而一般常用词是比较容易习得改变的。

20. Language contact theory: reflections and discussion 语言接触相关理论的思考探讨 • 4.1 Questioning the results of ‘mother-tongue’ transformation 关于母语转换结果的质疑 • In their work on language contact, Thomason & Kaufman (1991：50) proposed a classic comparative theory of ‘Contact-induced language change in language maintenance’ and ‘Contact-induced language change in language shift’, which is summarised below • 托马森和考夫曼论语言接触，对“母语坚持的借用干扰”和“母语放弃的语言转换底层干扰”有比较经典的论述，概括如下（参见Thomason、Kaufman 1991：50）：

22. Thomason was obviously of the opinion that when subjected to an intense level of language contact，the results of ‘contact-induced language change in language maintenance’ and ‘Contact-induced language change in language shift’ were essentially the same. The core lexicon of each is led by the target language and when the language formed by an overwhelming level of contact crystallises, language qualitative change is realised. • 显然，托马森认为，在深度接触的层级上，“Ⅰ母语保持的借用干扰”和“Ⅱ母语放弃语言转换的底层干扰”的结果本质上是相同的，即核心词均指向目标语，这种深度接触的语言形式经过石化，语言质变得以实现。

23. In accordance to the earlier discussion, The Dao, Wutun, Tangwang, Ei, Mak, Zha and Hui Hui languages roughly correspond to the ‘Contact-induced language change in language shift’ type. In section 3 it was displayed that the target language was dominant in the first one hundred core words of the class A Dao, Wutun and Tangwang language. This does not contradict Thomason and Kaufman’s theories. However, through their base language-dominated first one hundred core words of the lexicon, the class B Mak and Ei languages as well as the class C Hui Hui language, do in fact have the ability to challenge the theories of Thomason and Kaufman. • 前述中国境内的这几种特殊语言均应划归于“Ⅱ母语放弃语言转换过程中的底层干扰”一类。在第3节表中，甲类的倒话、五屯话、唐汪话核心词以目标语为主，这与托马森的理论不矛盾；可是，乙、丙类诶话、莫语、扎话、回辉话核心词以始发语为主，对这些语言事实，托马森的理论缺乏解释力。

24. 4.2 Concerning the necessary conditions for language qualitative change to occur 关于语言质变的充要条件 • On a global scale the chances of language qualitative change phenomena occurring are extremely low. The following are the principle criteria of language qualitative change: • 1) An intense pressure for communication through language; for instance where speakers of two different contacting languages come under extreme pressure for communication and this induces language qualitative change. • 世界上语言质变现象的发生率很低。我们认为语言质变的主要条件有： • （1）高度的语言交际压力，比如，A、B两种不同语言单语者在高度语言交际压力下导致交际语言发生质变；

25. 2) Aspirations within speakers of special status for distinction; for instance where a feeling of detachment within a group of bilingual (or multilingual) speakers of special status leads to the deliberate creation of a new language. • 3) A stable life in relatively closed-off surroundings (and the existence of a language community) • Of the criteria above some can be considered objective and some can be considered subjective. The widely accepted first criterion ‘an intense pressure for communication through language’ can be considered objective, as it reflects the essential character of language as a tool for communication, it doesn’t need to be justified further. • （2）说话者特殊身份的别同意愿，比如，A、B（或有C）双语人因其特殊族群的别同心理而蓄意造出一种新语言； • （3）相对封闭稳定的生活圈（关乎生存的言语社区）。

26. This begs the question of how a group of bilinguals does in fact start using a mixed language. The answer is when a special status is integral to the bilinguals’ situation and their wishes aren’t sufficiently met by either language available to them, causing them to deliberately create a new mixed language different from that which existed before it. Also, the fact that for this special group of people the language can initially provide a sense of identity, and then become a symbol of their cohesion can’t be ignored. • 上述三个条件中，第（1）条“高度的语言交际压力”人们普遍认同。第（2）条“说话者特殊身份的别同意愿”这一主观条件，人们对此认识不足或存有疑虑。因为双语现象普遍存在，一般并未产生新语言。那么，是怎样的双语人群偏偏要转而使用一种新的“A+B”语言呢？答案是：双语中的任何一种语言都不足以明示他们想要彰显的特殊族群身份，这样的双语人群会蓄意造出一种既不是A族语言也不是B族语言的“A+B”新语言。对于这样的特殊族群，语言首先是本族群身份认同感、凝聚力的象征。

27. Little prior emphasis has been placed on the third condition of ‘A stable life in relatively closed-off surroundings’, but it is in fact of the utmost importance. If this condition ceased to exist, the middle language formed under the intense pressure for communication would only be temporary, the language would fail to become fixed, or subsequently become a mother tongue passed through the generations. • 第（3）条“相对封闭稳定的生活圈”以往未予以强调，其实这是非常重要的。如果没有这一条件，在语言交际压力下形成的“中介语”可能只是临时性的，如像洋泾浜英语、傣汉语/汉傣语、珲春朝汉语中介语等不会石化，更不会作为母语传承。

28. Based on the interpretation and analysis of the three principle criteria that lead to the occurrence of language qualitative change, I believe that required conditions for language qualitative change to occur are ‘a combination of criteria 1 and 3; an extreme pressure for communication through language and a stable life in relatively closed-off surroundings’ or ‘a combination of criteria 2 and 3: the aspiration for detachment from speakers of special status who have stable lives in relatively closed-off surroundings’. • 因此，基于对语言质变三个主要条件的分析阐释，语言质变的充要条件是： • “（1）+（3）”——高度交际压力和相对封闭稳定的生活圈 • “（2）+（3）”——说话者别同意愿和相对封闭稳定的生活圈 • 其中条件“（2）+（3）”导致的语言质变现象在中国和世界上（Thomason 2007）不乏其例。

29. 4.3 Predictions regarding the results of qualitative language change 关于语言质变结果的预测 • Thomason （ 1991，2007 ）：Firstly, under intense pressure for communication speakers of a language will mutually compromise and simplify the grammatical rules of the other party, resulting in the production of a relatively simple pidgin or creole language structure. Secondly, feelings of separation from an elite or special group will lead to the ‘deliberate production’ of new language and language change in the lexical, grammatical and phonological systems the exact outcomes of which can’t be predicted. • 托马森（1991,2007）关于语言质变结果预测的理论：一方面，单语者在高度语言交际压力下彼此妥协简化对方的语法规则，由此产生的皮钦语或克里奥尔化的结果是语言结构相对简单；另一方面，双语者因其特殊族群的别同意愿“蓄意造出”的新语言在词汇、语法、语音系统诸方面发生演变，其结果是不可预测的。

30. In what way can the evidence provided by the extraordinary Chinese languages support these theories? • Regardless of whether the Dao, Wutun and Tangwang, Ei, Mak and Zha languages were formed by compulsive forces or deliberate change, or whether they are classed as complicated or simple , it is the clear typological differences and discrepancies displayed in key features and general character between these languages revealed by our research that are especially worthy of consideration (as shown in tables one and two) . • 那么，中国境内的特殊语言事实能否支持托马森的上述理论呢？ • 倒话、五屯话、唐汪话、诶话、莫话、扎话这六种语言，且不论是高度交际压力下形成的，还是别同心理蓄意造出的，无论是简单还是复杂，值得特别注意的是，这些特殊语言显示出了明显的类别区分、特征反差以及共性表现。

31. Obviously this structured model doesn’t support Thomason’s conclusion that ‘the development of contact-induced change is unpredictable’, as the type of pattern the phenomena exhibits can tell us that perhaps it can be predicted. • Based on the phenomena discovered regarding the two groups of Chinese extraordinary languages, we wonder if the following prediction can be made： • 显然，这种呈规律性的模式，对托马森“接触引发的演变无法预测”的结论是不太支持的，这种现象告诉我们，接触引发的语言演变不一定是不可预测的。 • 基于上述研究发现，我们是否可以作出如下预测：

32. The typological distance between languages contacting languages, can to a certain degree control the language qualitative change of structure characteristics. If there is intense contact between languages that have a large typological distance between them, the language qualitative change will always result in a core lexicon reflecting the target language, and grammatical characteristics reflecting the base language. If the typological distance is small, then the language qualitative change will result in a core lexicon reflecting the base language and grammatical characteristics reflecting the target language. However, regardless of the typological distance between contacting languages the key phonological constituents will reflect the base language and the commonly used words will reflect the target language. • 相接触语言之间的类型差距，在一定程度上控制着语言质变的构成特点。如果深度接触的语言之间类型差距大，其语言质变结果往往是核心词指向目标语，语法特点指向始发语；如果类型差距小，那么语言质变结果则相反，核心词指向始发语，语法特点指向目标语。不过，无论相接触语言之间的类型距离大小，其语言质变结果均在语音要素上偏向始发语，常用词偏向目标语。

33. 5. Conclusion 结语 • 1) Language qualitative change phenomena can be divided into categories. Class A is concerned with contacting languages that have large typological distance between them, a core lexicon dominated by the target language and grammatical features dominated by the base language;Class B is concerned with contacting languages that have small typological distance between them, a core lexicon dominated by the base language and grammatical features dominated by the target language. • （1）语言质变现象有类别之分。甲类（倒话、五屯话、唐汪话） ，相接触语言之间类型差距大，核心词以目标语为主，语法特点以始发语为主；乙类（诶话、莫话、扎话），相接触语言之间类型差距小，核心词以始发语为主，语法特点以目标语为主。

34. 2) The result of intense contact-induced qualitative change is not necessarily the transfer of the core lexicon from the target language, as proven by the Chinese languages of Ei and Mak. This can supplement and amend pre-existing theory. • 3) The essential requirements for language qualitative change to occur are; ‘an extreme pressure for communication through language and a stable life in relatively closed-off surroundings’ or ‘the aspiration for detachment from speakers of special status who have stable lives in relatively closed-off surroundings’. The latter is especially worthy of recognition. • （2）语言深度接触的质变结果，不一定都是转用目标语的核心词，中国的诶话、莫语、扎话予以证实，这可对托马森的相关理论有所修正补充。 • （3）语言质变的充要条件是：“高度的语言交际压力和相对封闭稳定的生活圈”，或者“说话者特殊族群身份的别同意愿和相对封闭稳定的生活圈”，后者尤其值得重视。

35. 4) From the pattern that has been revealed within the Chinese extraordinary languages, it is evident that the typological distance between contacting languages can to a certain extent control the structural characteristics in which language qualitative change takes place. Consequently, taking the core lexicon, grammatical characteristics, key phonological constituents and commonly used words as points of reference, predictions can be made about the results of intimate contact-induced change. It can also be said that previous conclusions that ‘the development of contact-induced change is unpredictable’ are worthy of further review. • （4）相接触语言之间的类型差距，在一定程度上控制着语言质变的构成特点。可用核心词、语法特点、语音要素、常用词作为四个参项，对深度接触引发的语言质变结果进行预测。而托马森“接触引发的演变无法预测”的结论是值得商榷的。

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37. Thank you! • 谢 谢！