Hazardous Air Pollutants: A Policy Comparison

1. Hazardous Air Pollutants: A Policy Comparison IU at Oxford V550, Comparative Environmental Policy Morgan Conway, Kristen Davee, Julie Elmore, Andrew Rector

2. Air Pollutants—The Basics • What are they? • “Substances which alter the composition of the natural atmosphere” • Physical classification • Gas molecules or particulate matter • Where do they come from? • Natural sources vs. Anthropogenic sources • Mobile sources vs. Stationary sources • What happens after emission? • Primary pollutants vs. Secondary pollutants • Issues of scale

3. Classification of Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) • Differs across countries • Generally substances such as: • Heavy metals • Acid gases • Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) • Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) • Other organic air toxics • Why should we care?

4. Heavy Metals • Cadmium, Lead, Mercury, Arsenic, Nickel • Low atmospheric concentrations, BUT they can: • Persist in the environment • Bioaccumulate in food chains • Undergo long-range atmospheric transport

5. Other Categories • Organic Air Toxics • Benzene • PAHs • PCBs • Acid Gases • Will form an acidic solution when mixed with water • Carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, hydrofluoric acid, and hydrochloric acid

6. Technology • Clean air regulation for acid rain and smog has spurred innovation • Optimal combination of control technologies varies • Co-benefits • Plasma control systems

7. Automobile Emissions • Exhaust contents: carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, heavy metals, and hydrocarbons (benzene, PAHs) • Methods to control emissions from gasoline-powered vehicles • Improve the combustion system • Target pollutants in the exhaust line • Seal off areas open to the atmosphere and return evaporative emissions to the intake line

8. Market Failures • Incomplete property rights • Public good nature of the environment/atmosphere • Externalities • Information • Lack of understanding • Asymmetries • How can we correct these?!

9. Name That Policy Tool! • Command and Control • Technology Standards • Performance Standards • Ambient Standards • Market-Based Instruments • Marketable Allowances • Mutant Combination instruments • C&C with input coordination • Information programs

10. United States Approach to HAPs • One-size-fits-all approach to most substances • Lead an important exception • PCB use eliminated in 1979 http://www.londonair.org.uk/london/asp/news.asp?newsid=Cleanair

11. U.S. HAP Regulation • 1990 amendments to Clean Air Act • 189 substances listed as “hazardous air pollutants” • No scientific reason for including these on the list • Mechanisms established under amendments • Distinction between “major” and “area” sources • “Maximum available control technologies” • Additional measure: information sharing

12. Scientific Uncertainty

13. Six Criteria Pollutants • 1990 amendments also created list of “criteria pollutants” • Common, dangerous pollutants regulated via set exposure standards • National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) • Policy mechanisms • State Implementation Plans (SIPs) • Permits

14. Lead: A Unique Case • Lead phased out of gasoline from 1973-1996 • Tradable permit system in place from 1982-1987 • Government set standard for how much lead could be in a gallon of gas (and kept lowering the limit) • Companies not able to meet the standard could buy permits from those that could

15. PCBs: Another Unique Case • Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 (TSCA) • PCB use and manufacture banned under TSCA in 1979 • Some very old appliances could still have PCBs • EPA runs disposal programs for these

16. Policy Evolution • Why choose these tools? • Uncertainty over science • Dramatic health/environmental effects of some substances • Political expediency http://www.edupics.com/coloring-page-factories-pollution-i7640.html

17. Canada and HAPS • What is a “HAP” in Canada? • Canadian Environmental Protection Act of 1999 (CEPA) • Administered in parts by both the Minister of the Environment and the Minister of Health • Allows for regulation of Toxic 1 substances • Does not prescribe regulations • National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI)

18. CEPA 1999 • Goals • Prevent pollution • Protect the environment and human health • Guiding Principles • Pollution prevention • Virtual elimination • Precautionary Principle • Intergovernmental Cooperation

19. Benzene Control in Canada • Regulations • Benzene in Gas Regulations • Best Management Practices • For natural gas dehydrators • Environmental Code of Practice • For non-integrated steel mills • For integrated steel mills

20. Heavy Metals in Canada • First addressed with the formation of the Department of the Environment • Differing regulations for each metal • 8 national regulations or standards for airborne Mercury • 8 national regulations and Environmental Performance Agreements for airborne lead • 4 guidelines or codes of practice for inorganic cadmium

21. Major Policy Tools ¡Name that policy tool! • Regulations • Environmental Performance Agreements • Coordination between Environment Canada, Industry and NGO’s • Increased flexibility and better public image • Code of Practice • Integrated document outlining environmental concerns, minimum performance standards and environmental goals • Best Management Practices • Guidelines

22. United Kingdom Air Pollutants

23. The Great Smog 1952

24. Environmental Act of 1995 • Created: • Environmental Agency • National Air Quality Standards • Local Air Quality Management

25. European Union • EU Air Quality 1996 • NOx, SOx, O3, CO, PM • First Daughter (1999) • Second Daughter (2000) • Third Daughter (2002) • Fourth Daughter (2004)

26. Mother of all Air Quality in EU • EU Air Quality of 2008 (Directive 2008/50/EC ) • Merges existing regulation into one • Incorporates latest health and scientific data • Aim: • Ease administrative burden • Better clarity

27. UK Air Quality (NAQS) • UK Air Quality Strategy of 97 • Under Environmental Act 1995 • Set targets for 8 pollutants • Benzene, 1,3-butadiene, CO, lead, NO2, Ozone PM and SO2 • Air Quality Strategy of 2010 • EU Air Quality directive made law • Incorporates 4th daughter directive

28. UK Air Quality - LAQM • Local authorities must assess air quality • Review and assess • Monitor and mathematical models • Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) • Action plans • In 2007, there were 208 AQMAs • Most missed standards due to auto emissions

29. General Themes • The role of government • Supranational, national, state/provincial, local • Use of the Precautionary Principle • Relevant/supporting science (or lack thereof) • Use of “command and control” measures • The role of uncertainty in policy instrument choice

30. Thank You For Your Attention • This is time for • Questions • Comments • Comparisons • Critiques Check new tools off your lifetime policy list!